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llinifim'iiHi9,!7,Xi,!yl,9,M!?,y,?L|C LIBRARY "

DATE OUE

2 '4 ?

JAN'29'48

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21

(Egrlnpeira

A Handbook of Religious Information,

with Special Reference to the History,

Doctrine, Work, and Usages

of the Lutheran Church

L. FUBRBRINGER, D.D.,

Professor of Biblical Introduction, Interpretation

TH. ENGELDER, D.D.,

Professor of Systematic Theology

P. E. KRETZMANN, PLD., D.D.,

Professor of New Testament History and Interpretation and of Religious Education

Editors- in- Chief

ST. Louis, Mo.

GONOORDIA PUBLISHING HOUSE 1927

IN TOT tf. 8. At,

Copyrighted 1927

by

CONCORDIA PUBLISHING HOCJSS St. Louis, Mo.

PREFACE <.--,

*V"*, ;

The Concordia Cyclopedia, which is herewith' presented to the Church, is a brief, but, at the same time, comprehensive work of general religious infor- mation, with special reference to the history, doctrine, work, and usages of the Lutheran Church. In planning *and ^rejsaring the work, the editors constantly had in mind the pastors, teachers, and educated laymen of our Church, who frequently must consult works of reference and who desire brief, but accurate information according to the standards of the Bible and the Lutheran Con- fessions. For this reason all articles on matters of doctrine and Christian life are founded on, and proved from, Scripture and our Confessions, and all other articles are written from the confessional Lutheran standpoint.

The work was planned in three great divisions: History, Doctrine, and Church-work, and each of these parts was again subdivided into a number of sections. The historical division comprises the following ' sections : The first age of the, Church (including Archeology), A. D. 100—325. The Middle Age, A. D. 325—1500. Luther and the Reformation, A. D. 1500—1600. Lutheranism in Europe, A.D. 1600—1925. Lutheranism in America (by far the largest historical section). Lutheranism in Other Countries (Australia, Africa, Asia). Eeformed Christianity. Romanism Since the Reformation (Council of Trent; Counter-reformation; Jesuitism; Yatican Council; Oxford Move- ment, etc.). The doctrinal division contains the following sections: The Teachings of the Bible and the Lutheran Church (including Apologetics). Distinctive Doctrines and Development of the Reformed Churches. Distinc- tive Doctrines and Usages of the Roman Catholic Church. Doctrines of Non- Christian Religious Societies (Mormonism, Christian Science, Lodges, etc.). To the secret societies considerable space was given. Christian Ethics (in- cluding such topics as Dance, Theater, Race Suicide, Prohibition, etc.). Church-work is divided into the following sections: Christian Education. Missions and Missionary History. Liturgies and Ecclesiastical Art. Hym- nology and Church Music. Organized Church-work (Bible Societies, Orphanages, Hospitals, Home-finding Societies, the various Leagues, Brother- hoods, etc.). Church Finances. Publicity, A distinctive feature is the amount of space given to the missionary endeavors of the Church and the inclusion of the names of the poets whose hymns are contained in the English and German hymn-books of the Missouri Synod. Each section was assigned to one of our associate editors, the following professors and pastors serving as such: F. Brand, W. Dallmann, J. H.O.Fritz, Th. Graebner, Ad. Haentz- schel, Ed. Koehler, Karl Kxetzmann, Paul E. Kretzmann, G. W. Mueller, J. T. Mueller, H. 0. F. Otte, Th. H. Schroedel, F. 0. Verwiebe.

A few extra articles were written by Pastors J. S. Bradac, Carl J. A.Hoff- maun, J. A. Moldstad, H. K. Moussa, and Professors W. H. Behrens and F. Wenger. At tie 'beginning of the undertaking, in March, 1920, the Edito- rial Board consisted of Th. Engelder, L. Fuerbringer, and Th. Graebner. When Professor Qraebner, the first one to suggest and outline the work, felt com- pelled to resign in December, 1923, Professor Kretzmapi took his place. He, as well as Professor Engelder, also contributed a nwoajber of articles which,

JV

* » + » * *» * < j »

for variou^ rc&s&n^ by others. The Editors-in-Chief

planned the whole work,w spirted the topics and articles which were to be included in every section; ^1 feed the number of words for every article. Each editor exercised tnV general oversight over that one of the three chief divisions which was assigned to him: Engelder: History; Fuerbringer: Church-work; (Graebner) Kretzmann: Doctrine. They furthermore kept in touch with the Associate Editors and^r^d, revised, and, whenever necessary, condensed their articles. The final wording was fixed in joint meetings of the editors, who also conjointly read the final proof. Professor Kretzmann saw the work through the press.

^ Opinions will always differ which men, which events, which facts and topics should be mentioned and which might be omitted in such a work of reference. The editors spent considerable time on this matter and tried to make the work as comprehensive as was possible under the circumstances. The space had to be limited in order not to produce too large a book, which would sell at too high a price. Undoubtedly some omissions will be found, and some mistakes may have crept in, although the editors tried to Jiave every detail correct. Any suggestions and corrections will be gratefully received by them.

In closing, they may be permitted to say that as far as they know, no other work covers the specific field of our CONCORDIA CYCLOPEDIA: to give brief, but accurate religious information on such a wide range of subjects to 'the pastor and layman of the American Lutheran Church. Even a cursory exam- ination will bear out this statement. Our Associate Editors deserve our thanks for their faithful and conscientious work, and our Publishers deserve our thanks for their unflagging interest in an undertaking in the production of which great difficulties had to be overcome and quite a number of dis- appointments were experienced. In order to save space and avoid repetitions, many cross-references have been given, which undoubtedly will prove helpful to those who use the work. An explanation of abbreviations will be found on the following page.

Originally the Editors-in-Chief had intended to add an appendix, giving- in brief form the biographical data of all pastors and teachers of the Missouri Synod. Such a list was compiled at our request by Pastor E. Eckhardt. We finally decided to omit this appendix, one of the chief reasons being its in- completeness, for which, however, Pastor Eckhardt is in no wise responsible. We hope that our efforts to have it completed will be successful and that it- may be printed later in some other form. Eor this reason some names of living theologians for which one might look axe referred to as given in the roster at the end of the book, while the names of our prominent laymen are to be found in the body of the CYCLOPEDIA. The roster at the end includes the names of the officials of the Missouri Synod and the presiding officers of its Districts and of all professors in its institutions as of December 31, 1926.

May the Lord of the Church, in whose honor th© work was undertaken and completed, bless it as it is going out into the world to find an entrance into many a Christian home! L.

Ooncordia Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., March 1, 1927,

International System of Initials f o^/^jijssionary Societies.

(Principal Societies.)

ABCFM U. S. A. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.

ABF U. S. A. American Baptist Foreign Mission Society.

ABS U. S. A. American Bible Society.

ATS U. S. A. American Tract Society.

BFBS England British and Foreign Bible Society.

CMS England Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East.

CIM International China Inland Mission,

ELMO IT. S. A. Board of Foreign Missions of the Ev. Luth. Synod of Mia-

souri, Ohio, and Other States.

FCOA U. S. A. Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America.

FMCNA U. S, A. Foreign Missions Conference of Nor^h America.

LMM U. S. A. Layman's Missionary Movement of the United States and

Canada.

SPCK. England Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

SPG England Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign

Parts.

SVM U. S. A. Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions.

WCEU U. S. A. World's Christian Endeavor Union.

WCTU International World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union.

Abbreviations Used in the Concordia Cyclopedia.

A. D. « Anno Domini, year of the Lord ;

after Christ. b. = born.

B. C. = before Christ. ca. = circa, about, can. = canon.

cf . *= confer, compare.

Gone. TrigL = Ooncordia Triglottct.

Cp. = compare.

d. = died.

ed. = edited (by).

0. £. = ewempli graPia,, for example.

f. and ff. (plural) = and the following.

ibid. = ibidem, at the same place.

i,e. = id est, that is.

jL. o. = Loco citato, at the place quoted.

M. E. = Mechanical Engineer.

n. = near.

N". B. = Nota bene, note well.

nee = born ( French ) ; maiden name.

q. v. and qq. v. = quern or quod ( sing. )

vide and quos or quae (pi.) vide, whom

or which see. R. C. = Roman Catholic. R. \r. = Revised Version of English Bible. Sess. = Session.

v. and vv. (plural) == verse, verses. viz. = videlicet, that is.

Abbess. In many monastic commu- nities of women, the superior, whose po- sition corresponds to that of an abbot, except that she has no spiritual juris- diction whatever.

Abbey. A monastic house governed by an abbot or an abbess. In the Middle Ages the living-quarters of the monastics were usually built in connection with the abbey church.

Abbot (from Syrian abfca, father). The superior in certain communities of monks, especially Benedictines. Abbots must be priests and are usually elected for life by the members of the comnru- nity. They are exempt from the juris- diction of the bishop, administer the property of their abbey, maintain disci- pline, absolve, and, in certain cases, dis- pense. Some abbots, in the Middle Ages, held high rank and wielded great power.

Abbot, Ezra, American Biblical scholar; Unitarian; b. 1819,, Jackson, Me.; d. 1884, Cambridge, Mass. Since ] 872 professor, New Testament Criticism and Interpretation, Harvard. Noted tex- tual critic. Member, American New Tes- tament Revision Committee.

Abbott, Lyman. Congregationalist clergyman and writer, b. Roxbury, Mass., 1835, d. New York, 1922; held pastor- ate, among others, at Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, editor of the Outlook, wrote various exegetical and practical treatises and books, all with marked liberal ten- dency.

Abdul Baha. See BahaAs.

Abelard. Mpnastic or historical name of Pierre de Palais, notable scholastic, b. 1079, d. near Chalon-sur-Saone, 1142. Studied philosophy under various teach- ers and began to lecture, first at Melun and Corbeil, then at Paris; studied the- ology with Anselm. of Laon, then returned to Paris; was secretly married to He- loise, who subsequently entered a nun- nery. Abelard entered the Benedictine Abbey of St. Denis at Paris; views ex- pressed in his writings (Sic et Non) at- tacked as heretical, was condemned to silence, wrote an apology, died soon after, broken by sufferings and misfortunes. See also Education.

Abgar. See JUdessa. Concordia Cyclopedia

Ablution. Water and wine with which Roman priests wash their fingers after Communion to preserve particles that may adhere to them. The priests drink the ablution.

Abraham a Sancta Clara. Monastic name of German preacher Ulrich Me- gerle; b. Kreenlieinstetten, Baden, 1644; d. Vienna, 1709 ; educated by Jesuits and Benedictines; held high positions in order of barefooted Augustinians ; a for- cible preacher, appealing to popular fancy; among his writings Auf, auf, ihr Christen ( against Turks ), Judas der J8r&- schelm (an imaginary autobiography), Crrammatica Religiosa (compend of moral theology).

Abrahamson, Dr. L. G-. For many years editor of Augustana, b. 1856 in Sweden, pastor in Altona and Chicago, 1880 — 1909, author of three volumes of sermons and (with C. A. Swensson) of Ju~bel~ Album.

Abrenunciation. The formal repu- diation or utter renunciation of the devil and all his works and all his pomp, as practised in the Church since ancient times in connection with the vow of bap- tism.

Absolution, Doctrine of. Literally, absolution signifies the act of loosening or setting free, the remission of sin and of the penalty of sin. It is distinctly stated in Scriptures: "Verily I say unto you, Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatso- ever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." Matt. 18, 18. And again : "Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them, and whosesoever sins ye retain, they are retained." John 20, 23. Another passage which comes into consideration here is Matt. 9, 8: "But when the multitudes saw it, they marveled and glorified God, which had given such power unto men." It is clear from these passages that absolution is not merely a declaration of the grace of God in Christ Jesus, but an actual im- parting of the remission of sins to all those who repent of their sins and be- lieve the Gospel. It is not only the promise of the forgiveness of sins, but it is the voice of the reconciled God actu- ally giving assurance of the state of jus-

Absolution

tirioation \tpiY*ig3i • Vu

( fl i ri si ; for $ e S]i# *c bcefl" *scfr *i&I*^ ft,Y * God to be'a propitiation Ihiough faith in His blood, to declare/Hi^ righteous- ness for the remission of aijiVihat aie past, through the forbearance "of God, that He might be just and the Justifier of him which beUeveth in Jesus. Rom. 3, 25. 26. Absolution is rightly described and defined in the Small Catechism as the peculiar church power which Christ has given to His Church on earth, to for- give the sins of the penitent sinners unto them. It is the application to the indi- vidual of the divine promise in Christ, with the full assurance of the forgive- ness of his sins. Its distinguishing char- acteristic is this individual application of the promise, for in this respect the pronouncing of the absolution differs from the general announcement of the grace of God to the congregation as a whole. Not, indeed, as though it may be regarded as a Sacrament, — for the sealing of the forgiveness of sins by an external, earthly element is lacking,— but that it is the very heart and soul of both Sacraments. Jt is this feature that makes absolution an act of the highest comfort, that the individual soul receives the assurance of the Gospel applied to it directly, so that the formula, "Thy sins bet forgiven thee," works a certainty of faith, which relies for its own person upon the Gospel promise arid thus is sure of salvation through the merits of Christ.

^ These points are clearly brought out m the Lutheran Confessions We read m the Smalcald Articles, Art. VI, "Of the Keys": "The keys are an office and power given by Christ to the Church for binding and loosing sin, not only the gross and well-known sins, but also the subtle, hidden, which are known only to Grod.s? (Conc.Trigl.,4n.) In the Apol- ?ffV °f Me Augsburg Confession, Art. XII: The power of the keys adminis- ters and presents the Gospel through ab- solution, which proclaims peace to men

and is the true voice of the Gospel

For when the Gospel is heard, and the absolution, i.e., the promise of divine grace, is heard, the conscience is encour- aged and receives consolation. And be- cause God truly quickens through the Word, the keys truly remit sins before ^od; here on earth sins are truly can- celed in such manner that they are can- celed also before God in heaven, accord- ing to Luke 10, 16 : eHe that heareth you heareth Me.5 M (L. c., 261.) In the Apol- 6gy of the Augsburg Confession, Art. XI : It is well known that we have so eluci- dated and extolled that we have preached,

•vn:itt<ni, and taught, in a manner so VC*ltristiaii, conoct, and pine, the benefit of absolution and the power of the keys that many distressed consciences have derived consolation fiom our doctrine; after they heard that it ia the command of God, nay, rather the very voice of the Gospel, that we should believe the abso- lution and regard it as ceitain that the remission of sins is freely granted us for Christ's sake; and that we should -be- lieve that by this faith we aie truly reconciled to God, as though we heard a voice from heaven." (L. o., 249.) Again, in the Apology, Art. VI: "For we also retain confession, especially on ac- count of the absolution, as being- the Word of God which, by divine authority, the power of the keys pronounces upon individuals.'3 (L. a, 281.) In short, tho words of the Small Catechism summarize the doctrine: "Confession embraces two parts: the one is, that we confess our sins; the other, that we receive absolu- tion, or forgiveness, from the confessor, as from God. Himself, and in no wise doubt, but firmly believe, that our sins are thereby forgiven before God in heaven."

The power of absolution is given to all Christians and may be exercised by any one of them, but within the organization of the Christian congregation, and in the name of all, it is exercised by the called servant of the congregation,

Absolution ( Liturgical ) . The term is used in the Lutheran Church in a two- fold sense. In the wider sense it refers to the so-called General Absolution which many church orders of the 16th century included in the regular service on Sun- day morning, the pastor being required to read a general confession of sins after the sermon, followed by an absolution to the entire congregation. The inappro- priateness of this custom was urged for several reasons, and therefore the more logical orders placed the General Abso- lution at the beginning of worship, where it was also placed by the Common Ser- vice. It is a declaration of the grace of God to repentant sinners. In a more re- stricted sense the term absolution refers to the public declaration of God's grace and mercy following the general confes- sion in the special preparatory service before the celebration of the Holy Com- munion. The communicants, having had the Word of God applied to themselves in admonition and promise, make public confession of their ,sins, state their wil- lingness henceforth to amend their sin- ful lives, and are thereupon given tlie assurance of the grace of God in the simple and stately words of the formula

Absolution

Academic

of absolution. It is immaterial whether this proclamation be termed "Declara- tion of Grace" or "Absolution." In either case the forgiveness of sins de- clared in the Gospel is actually trans- mitted to all believers.

Absolution, Roman Catholic Doctrine. 1. Absolution from sin. The Roman Church teaches that only a priest can absolve. "No one is admitted into heaven if the gates are not opened by the priests, into whose charge the Lord has given the keys." (Catechismus Ro- manus, II, 5. 43.) A distinction is made between the power to absolve, which is conferred on the priest by ordination, and jurisdiction, which authorizes the priest to exercise this absolving power toward certain persons, though not for all sins (see Reserved Oases}. Jurisdic- tion is ordinarily conferred by the bishop, and absolution given to a person over whom the priest has no jurisdiction is invalid, except that in danger of death any priest has jurisdiction. The neces- sity for jurisdiction follows from the teaching that the priest, in confession, acts as a judge of the self -accused crimi- nal who comes to him. In this judicial capacity he acts also when, after hearing the case, he pronounces absolution and assesses works of satisfaction on the penitent. The Roman Ritual prescribes the following form of absolution: "I ab- solve thee from thy sins in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost." The precatory form of ab- solution, such as, "May Jesus Christ ab- solve thee," etc., which was used in the Church during the first thousand years after Christ, is no longer permitted. Ab- solution, to be valid, must be uttered by the priest in the presence of the person absolved and cannot be given by letter or messenger. It is to be noted that, ac- cording to Roman doctrine, absolution is intended to be only partial and to ab- solve only from eternal punishment. Even after absolution the penitent is sup- posed to remain sxibject to temporal pun- ishments for his sin at the hands of God. To escape these punishments, he must do the works of satisfaction enjoined by the priest, earn indulgences, etc. — 2, Abso- lution from church penalties (excommu- nication, suspension, interdict) may be given either in the confessional or, apart from the so-called Sacrament of Penance, by any cleric having jurisdiction. The person absolved need not be present, or contrite, or even living.

Abyssinia. Early religious history (see Abyssinia, missions] shrouded in mystery of tradition, but fairly certain since ?ramentiu,s, at end of fourth cen-

tury. A Christian island in a sea of Mo- hammedanism, its archbishop being con- secrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria and bearing the title Abuna, father. Abyssinian Christianity is strongly de- cadent, partly due to the prevalence of Jewish customs (circumcision, abstaining from certain foods as unclean, the obser- vance of Saturday as well as Sunday ) , partly on account of Monophysitism (q. v.). The language of the Abyssinian Church is Geez, in which church services are conducted, but the language of the people is Amharic, and in this tongue a translation of the Bible has been pre- pared. The people have consistently op- posed all attempts at converting them, whether made by Roman Catholics or by Protestants. In 1896 Italy tried to con- quer the country of Abyssinia, but failed, King Menelik's victory over the invaders giving him great prestige. Up till now, also under the present ruler, Ras Taf- fari, Abyssinia has successfully with- stood the attempts of Islam to gain the country, and the growing acquaintance with the Bible seems to indicate further safety for Christianity.

Abyssinia — Ethiopia ( missions in ) . A kingdom in East Africa. Population about '8,000,000, chiefly of Semitic Abys- sinians, Somali Negroes, and Felashas of Jewish faith. Has Coptic form, of Chris- tianity. Unsuccessful attempts by Jesuits to attach the Abyssinian Church to Rome in 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Peter Heiling, of Luebeck, essayed missionary work in 1834. Translated New Testa- ment into the Amharic. In 1830 the Church Mission Society sent Samuel Go- bat and others, who were expelled after ten years of missionary effort. Later missionary attempts were made by Spitt- ler (Chrischona) 1856; Dr. Stern (I860), sent by the London Jews' Society; the American United Presbyterians (1861); the Swedish Evangeliska Fosterlands Stiftelsen (1801) in Eritrea.

Academic Degrees are the official recognition by a university that a cer- tain grade has been attained in a branch of learning. The practise dates back to the early history of the university. Great changes have taken place since, and there is at present no uniformity as to requirements, studies, and titles. The tendency has been, especially in America^, to increase the number of titles. Since 1861 more than fifty different degrees are conferred. The usual requirement for th'e bachelor's degree (A. B.) is a four-year course, accompanied with nec- essary examinations. The master's de- gree (A.M.) is conferred after one year of specializing in a definite field, exami-

Aft of ToU-raliou

nations, and, in moat eases, a thesis. For tlie higher degree of doctor (D.) two or three years' study and the presenta- tion of an original piece of research work is required. Most faculties have the de- gree of bachelor, master, and doctor. De- grees are often bestowed honoris COMSQ>. The title "dean'* is not an academic de- gree, but denotes an office; as, of an as- sistant to a Roman Catholic bishop, of a college officer, member of the faculty, who has charge of the local and inter- nal executive affairs; also of the head of a department, theological, medical, or law, connected with a college; of a min- ister who is the chief officer of a cathe- dral or of a collegiate church.

Academies. The designation "acad- emy" was first applied to a pleasure- ground near Athens, since its shady walks were a favorite resort for Plato, who lectured here to his pupils. Cicero gave the name to his gymnasium at his villa near Tusculum. From this fact the usage of the word to apply to insti- tutions of learning was derived, not so much during the Middle Ages as after the revival of classical studies. The word now has a double significance. It was restricted to special schools, such as academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, of fine arts, and especially of music, likewise to institutions for mili- tary training. Thus the special use of the word "academy" came to designate associations of learned men for the ad- vancement of speciiic sciences and arts. Such academies have been established particularly in European countries, e. g., in France, although America also has a number of such societies. — In a more restricted sense the word "academy" is now applied to higher institutions of learning of about the rank of high schools, but with entrance requirements and courses offering a greater latitude and the organization less definitely form- ing a link between the grade school and the university or college. Tn the Lu- theran Church there are about one hun- dred academies, some of which are organ- ically connected with colleges or Bible training-schools, while others are inde- pendent in their organization. To the former class belong such schools as the Gettysburg Academy, the Allentown Pre- paratory (School of Muhlenberg College, the Wittenberg College Academy, Upsaia College Academy, and the high school de- partment of the institutions which offer pretheological courses. To the latter class belong such institutions as the Col- legiate Institute of Mount Pleasant, N. C., Summerland College of Leesville, 8, Cv Hebron Academy of Hebron, Nebr.,

St. John's Academy of Petersburg, W.Va , Martin Luther Academy of Sterling, Nebr., North Star College of Warren, Minn , Luther College of Wahoo, Nebr., Luther Academy of Albert Lea, Minn , Luther Institute of Chicago, 111., Lu- theran High School of Deahler, Nebr., Luther Institute of Foit Wayne, hid., and others.

Accentus. The individual chanting of the service by the officiating priest, found chiefly in the Roman Church, seven ac- cents being distinguished in liturgiology, namely, medius, gratis, moderaJiw, ani- tuSj interrogaMvuS) immutability, and finalis.

Acceptilation. A theological term first applied in the Middle Ages to de- note the acceptance by Cod of an atone- ment, not because it is in itself an equiv- alent, but because God determines to accept it a a such.

Accommodation, Je.mil, Doctrine of. A long and bitter dispute, the Accommo- dation Controversy, was waged between Dominicans and Jesuits during the 1 7th and 18th. centuries regarding the so- called Chinese Kites. The Jesuits had permitted Chinese converts to continue ancestor-worship, to bring offerings to Confucius, and to call Gocl Tion (Sky, Heaven), claiming that these were harm- less accommodations to native customs. The Dominicans protested. Similar ques- tions arose concerning the Malabar Bites in India. Home decided against the Jes- uits, though the decision entailed heavy losses in the mission-fields. A similar doctrine of accommodation was found in the Protestant Church in the period of Rationalism.

Achenbach, Wllhelm, b in Darm- stadt, Hessen, October 0, 1831, graduate of Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, or- dained and installed as pastor in Grand Rapids, Mich., 1850; professor at Fort 'Wayne 1863 (Konrektor) ; pastor at Venedy, III. (1871), and St. Louis (Ca- rondelet), Mo. (1883); d. February 24, 1899.

Acolyte. A member of the highest of the four minor orders of the Roman Church, who supplies water and wine and carries lights at the Mass.

Acosmism, See

Acoustics. That branch of physics which concerns the phenomena and laws of sound, especially as applied to an auditorium with respect to the clear con- veyance of the voice in singing and speaking.

Act of Toleration. An act passed by the English Parliament under the reign

A c t ji M n r i y r la in.

Adultery

of William and Mary, May 24, 1689, to relieve the legal disabilities of Protes- tant dissenters. Primarily it restricted tke application of laws against non-con- formity passed in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I, Charles I, and Charles II. Prot- estant dissenters, upon taking the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, were not to be subject to legal action for attending '"conventicles." Dissenting ministers who took the oath were exempt from jury duties and from holding parochial offices. Quakers might make affirmation of loy- alty, but papists, and those who denied the doctrine of the Trinity, were excepted from the benefits of the Act. The wor- ship of dissenters was protected under the Act, which imposed penalties upon those who should "disturb or disquiet" such worship.

Acta Martyrum and Ada S&nctorum. Collections of bibliographies of holy per- sons, especially of such as suffered mar- tyrdom, those of saints referring to such persons as were canonized on account of their alleged pious and pure lives. There is a number of genuine stories, such as those of Perpetua, Felicitas, and Cyprian, but many are not authentic and have an essentially legendary character. Many of the names of both groups are found in the Calendar of the Roman Church.

Acta Sanctorum. See Acta Martyrum.

Addams, Jane. American social set- tlement worker; b I860, Cedarville, 111. Together with Ellen Gates Starr estab- lished Hull House in Chicago, 1889, lead- ing social settlement in America. Known also as lecturer and writer on subjects of social and political reform. Wrote The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets, 1909; Twenty Years at Hull House, 1910.

Addison, Joseph, 1672—1719. Edu- cated at Oxford, gave himself to the study of law and politics, and held some very important posts, such as Chief Sec- retary for Ireland; the authorship of hymns ascribed to him has been disputed, but ably vindicated in recent years; among Ms hymns : "When All Thy Mer- cies, 0 My God"; "The Lord My Pasture Shall Prepare."

Adelberg-, B., b. 18.35, d. 1911, educa- ted at Hartwick Seminary; pastor at Albany and vice-president of New York Mihisterium, 1859; joined Wisconsin Synod, 1869; pastor at Watertown and Milwaukee; synodical treasurer, editor Gem&indeblatt, assistant professor at seminary.

Adeste, Fideles. Christmas - hymn whose authorship has been ascribed to Bo&aventura, also to Bishop Borderies,

since it is apparently of seventeenth or eighteenth century origin; translation: "Come Hither, Ye Faithful," credited to Charles Porterfield Krauth.

Adiaphoristic Controversy, caused by the Augsburg Interim, forced on the prostrate Lutherans in 1548 by the vic- torious Kaiser, which conceded the cup and clerical marriage, but demanded the restoration of the Mass, the seven sacraments, the authority of the Pope and bishops, etc., till matters might be finally adjusted. Melanchthon and others in the Leipzig Interim submitted and said these Romish ceremonies might he observed as matters indifferent in themselves. Professor Flacius, of Wit- tenberg, only twenty-eight, at the risk of losing his position, attacked the In- let Itn, seconded by Wigand, Gallus, Brenz, and others. They held it wrong to observe even indifferent ceremonies when a false impression is thereby cre- ated. "Nothing is an adiaphoron when confession and offense are involved." The Passau Treaty of 1552 and the Augsburg1 Religious Peace of 1555 re- moved the cause; yet the controversy went on because the Adiaphorists con- tinued to defend their position. Art. X of the Formula of Concord settled the controversy in the sense of Flacius.

Adler, Pelix. See Ethical Culture.

Adonai Shomo Community. See Communistic 8ooieties.

Adoptionist Controversy. A heret- ical, Nestorian view according to which Jesus Christ is the Son of God by adop- tion only, according to the human na: ture. Traces found in early history of Church, but especially strong in seventh and eighth centuries, the most promi- nent exponent being Bishop Felix of Urgel in the Pyrenees. On the ortho- dox side Alcuin wrote a controversial treatise; two separate encyclicals of bishops, Frankish and German, con- demned Adoptionism. The controversy once more became strong in the twelfth century, with Eberhard of Bamberg, who accused the orthodox teachers of Euty- chianism (q. v.} , for in the heat of the controversy some statements approached that view. The doctrine that the man Jesus Christ is the Son of God, not through adoption, but through the per- sonal union, afterward fully established against error.*

Adultery. The illicit sexual inter- course between a man and a woman, either of whom is married to another. Under the ancient ecclesiastical law it was immaterial which party was mar- ried, the man or the woman, or whether

Advent Christian. Chmrcli

A<lveut Christian Glmrelt.

both were married and both were guilty. An essential factor of the sin is the meeting of wills on both sides, even though this be due to persuasion, Deut. 22, 22 ; for where this element is absent, it is a case of humbling or forcing, Ezek. 22, 11 ; Deut. 22, 24; 2 Sam. 13, 12. The sin of adultery is condemned in the strongest terms throughout the Bible; it was punished with death in the Old Testament, Deut. 22, 22; Lev. 20, 10, and in the New Testament we find it listed with the open sins of the flesh, Gal. 5, 19. It is clear that adultery dissolves and destroys the marital union, for it is the extreme form of desertion and a delib- erate setting aside of the faithfulness which is an essential feature of holy wedlock according to God's institution, Gen. 2, 24, whence it is but natural that the Lord Jesus names this sin as the one which will at once excuse a person for putting away his spause. Matt. 19, 9. If both parties to a marriage become guilty of adultery, the guilt on either side equalizes the transgression, and neither party is entitled to a divorce. The same thing holds true in the case of conniv- ance or ^collusion, also in instances of condonation, if the parties live together subsequently with full knowledge of the adultery on the part of the one who is innocent. Such condonation may be the result of Christian forgiveness; for the Lord does not command a divorce on ac- count of adultery, but merely grants it. Advent Christian Church.* The or- ganization under this name dates from 1861. Disappointed at the passing of the date (1844) fixed for the second advent of Christ, Jonathan Cummings began

* EDITOR'S NOTE. — Since the various or- ganizations which are directly or indirectly connected with the Church, or which have any bearing on the Church and its work, in the course of time undergo continual changes, and since such organizations from time to time cease to exist or new ones are organized, we have not attempted to give a complete list of such organizations nor a de- tailed account of such as we have included in this work. In reference to such organiza- tions a book of this kind cannot be up to dater but the annual publication of a special year-book, such as the Year-look of the Churches (edited by B. 0. Watson and pub- lished by J» E, StoWmann, 129 Park Row, New York City), is a necessity and ought to be in the hands of sucn as have occasion to inquire into the many and, varied activities of the Church at large or of any organiza- tions whose work has a direct or indirect bearing upon that of the Ch'urch. For the Lutheran Church at large much valuable de- tailed information is given in the Lutheran World Almanac, published by the National Lutheran Council. For the various Lu- theran churehhbodles their own official pub- lications ought to be consulted, as the Lu- theran Annual and the Statistical Yearbook published by the Missouri Synod.

to teach that the 1,335 days of Daniel (Dan. 12, 12) would end in 1854, when the resurrection would occur. When 1854 also passed, they frankly admitted their mistake as to the, date of the ad- vent, and it was hoped that they would rejoin the original body. However, by this time a well-marked difference of opinion had developed among Advent ists with reference to the immortality of the soul. The followers of Mr. Cummings had for the moat part accepted the doc- trine that man is by nature wholly mor- tal and therefore unconscious in death, immortality not being inherent in man- kind, but the gift of God to be bestowed in the resurrection on those who hive been true followers of Christ. The main body of Adventists, on the other hand, accepted, in general, the doctrine of the conscious state of the dead and the eter- nal suffering of the wicked. Owing largely to the difference which they re- garded as vital, the followers of Mr. Cum- mings did not unite with the general con- ference held at Boston, June 5, 1855, hut held a conference of their own on the same day. From that time on the sepa- ration between the two bodies was defi- nitely recognized. Those who had sepa- rated from the main body organized the Advent Christian Association at Wor- cester, Mass., November 6, 1861, and have since borne the name Advent Chris- tian Church. This branch of the Ad- ventists now holds simply to the general imminence of Christ's return and takes the position that "no man knoweth the day nor the hour wherein the Son of Man cometh." The Declaration of Prin- ciples, as unanimously approved by the Advent Church Association and General Conference of America in 1900, empha- sizes the following points of doctrine: that through sin man has forfeited im- mortality, and only through faith in Christ can any live forever; that death is a condition of unconsciousness for all persons until the resurrection at Christ's second coming, when the righteous will enter an endless life upon this earth and the rest suffer complete extinction; that the coming of Christ is near; that church government should be congregational; that immersion is the only true baptism ; that open communion should be prac- tised; and that the first day of the week, set apart by the early Church in commemoration of the resurrection, is held to be the proper Christian Sabbath, to he observed as a day of rest and re- ligious worship. Their denominational activities are carried on mainly through the American Advent Mission Society, the Woman's Home and Foreign Mis-

Adventism

AcLvemtism

sionary Societies, and four publication societies. Their main organ is The World's Crisis and Second Advent Mes- senger, published in Boston. The young people of the denomination are organized in a Young People's Loyal Workers' So- ciety. In 1921 they numbered 770 min- isters, 535 churches, and 30,597 commu- nicants. See also Adventism.

Advent ism. The term "Adventism/' in its general application, broadly ex- presses the peculiar tenet of the Advent- ists, a church-body embracing several branches, whose members look for the proximate personal coming of Christ. The "Advent Movement" originated with William Miller, who was born at Pitts- field, Mass., February 15, 1782, and died in Low Hampton, N. Y., December 20, 1849. For many years Mr. Miller was an avowed deist, but "found no spiritual rest" until 1816, when he was converted and joined the Baptists. He now became a close student of the Bible, especially of the prophecies, and soon satisfied him- self that the advent of Christ was to be personal and prernillennial, and that it was near at hand. Through the study of the prophetic portions of the Bible, upon which he entered in 1818, he became con- vinced that the doctrine of the world's conversion is unscriptural ; that not only the parable of the wheat and the tares, as explained by Christ in Matt. 13, 24 — 30, but many other passages, teacli the coexistence of Christianity and anti- christianity while the Gospel age lasts; and that, as the period of a thousand years, during which Satan is bound (Rev. 20) and from which the conception of the millennium is derived, lies between the first resurrection (Rev. 20, 4 — 6), which he understood to include all the redeemed, and that of "the rest of the dead" ( Rev. 20, 5 ) , the coming of Christ in person, power, and glory must be pre- miUennial. Taking the more or less generally accepted view that the "days'3 of prophecy symbolize years, he was led to the conclusion that the 2,300 days re- ferred to in Dan. 8, 13. 14, the beginning of which he dated from the command- ment to restore Jerusalem, given in 457 B. C. (Dan. 9,25), and the 1,335 days of the same prophet (Dan. 12, 12), which he took to constitute the latter part of the 2,300 days, would end coincidently in or about the year 1843. The cleansing of the Sanctuary, which was to take place at the close of the 2,300 days (Dan. 8, 14), he understood to mean the cleans- ing of the earth at the second coming of Christ, which, as a result of his compu- tations, he confidently expected would occur some time between March 21, 1843,

and March 21, 1844, the period corre- sponding to the Jewish year. In 1831 Mr. Miller began his public labors by ac- cepting an invitation to go to Dresden, N". Y., to speak on the subject of the Lord's return. Other invitations quickly followed, and thus began a work which in a few years, though not without op- position, spread far and wide, ministers and members of various evangelical de- nominations uniting in expecting the speedy, personal, and premillennial com- ing of Christ. The "Advent Movement" was assisted by the appearance of a number of papers, such as The Midnight Cry, The Signs of the Times, and The Trumpet of Alarm, which emphasized these views. As the time approached when the coming of Christ was expected, there was a wide-spread interest and elaborate preparation. Naturally, when the period originally indicated by Mr. Miller passed without bringing the event, there was much disappointment. Later, however, some of the Adventists put forth a theory fixing October 22, 1844, as the date of Christ's advent. This prediction also proved a sad failure. In the beginning the "Advent Move- ment" was wholly within the existing churches, and there was no attempt to establish a separate denomination. Mr. Miller himself, during the greater part of his work, was a Baptist licen- tiate. In June, 1843, however, the Maine Conference of the Methodist Epis- copal Church passed resolutions con- demning the movement, and from that time on considerable opposition was manifested. In some cases Adventists were forced to leave the churches of which they were members; in others they withdrew voluntarily, basing their action, in part, on the command to "come out of Babylon" (Rev. 18, 4), including under the term "Babylon," not only the Roman Catholic Church, but also the Protestant churches. Mr. Miller and other leaders earnestly deprecated this interpretation, yet it influenced some to leave the old communions. No definite move was made, however, toward the general organization of the adherents of the Adventist doctrines until 1845. In that year, according to an estimate made by Mr. Miller, there were Advent congre- gations in "nearly a thousand places," "numbering . . . some fifty thousand be- lievers." A conference was called at Al- bany, N. Y., in April, 1845, for the pur- pose of defining- their position, and it was largely attended, also by Mr. Miller. A declaration of principles was adopted embodying the views of Mr. Miller re- specting the personal and premillennial

AtlventiAin

8

A A veil 11 s

character of the second coming of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, and the re- newal of the earth as the abode of the redeemed, together with cognate points of doctrine., which have been summarized as follows: 1. The present heavens and earth are to be dissolved by fire, and new heavens and a new earth are to be cre- ated, whose dominion is to be given to "the people of the saints of the Most High." 2. There are but two advents of the Savior, both of which are personal and visible. The first includes the period of His life from His birth to His ascen- sion; the second begins with His descent from heaven at the sounding of the last trump. 3. The second coming is indi- cated to be near at hand, even at the doors; and this truth should be preached to the saints that they may rejoice, knowing that their redemption draws nigh; and to sinners that they may be warned to flee from the*wrath to come.

4. The condition of salvation is repent- ance toward God and faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. Those who have repent- ance and faith will live soberly and righteously and godly in this world, looking for the Lord's appearing.

5. There will be a resurrection of the bodies of all the dead, both of the just and the unjust. Those who are Christ's will be raised at His coming; the rest of the dead not until a thousand years later. 6. The only millennium, taught in the Word of God is the thousand years intervening between the first resurrec- tion and that of the rest of the dead. 7". There is no difference under the Gos- pel dispensation between Jew and Gen- tile, but God will render to every man according to his deeds. The only resto- ration of Israel is in the restoration of the saints to the regenerated earth.

8. There is no promise of this world's conversion. The children of the King- dom and of the Wicked One will con- tinue together until the end of the world.

9. Departed saints do not enter their in- heritance at death, that inheritance being reserved in heaven ready to be revealed at the second coming, when they will be equal to the angels, being the children of God and of the resurrection j but in soul and spirit they enter the paradise of God to await in rest and comfort the final blessedness of the everlasting king- dom.

The somewhat loosely organized body, which was formed at the general confer- ence of Adventists held at Albany, N. Y., in April, 1845, continued for a decade to include practically all the Adventists ex- cept those who held to the observance of the seventh day of the week, rather than the first, as the Sabbath. In the year of

Mr. Miller's death (1841)) they were estimated at 50,000. In 1855 the' discus- sions, in which Jonathan Cummmgs had so prominent a part, resulted in the with- drawal of some members, and the subse- quent organization of the Advent Chris- tian Church ( q. T. ). The Adventists who continued their adherence to the original body were for the most part those who believed in the doctrine of the conscious state of the dead and the eternal suiter- ings of the wicked, claiming on these points to be in accord with the personal views of Mr. Miller. They, however, felt the need of closer association and in 1858 organized at Boston, Mass., the Ameri- can Millennial Association, partly for the purpose of publishing material in support of their belief, partly as a basis of fellowship. 8ome years later the members of this society adopted the name Evangelical Adventists as a de- nominational term, with a view to dis- tinguishing themselves from other bodies with which they differed on doctrinal points. For some years the association published a periodical, called, at different times, ffiigns of tlie Times, Advent Her* uld, Messiah's HerM, and Herald of the Coming One. It contributed to the sup- poit of the China Inland Mission and of laborers and missions in other fields, but as the older members died, many of the younger families joined other evangel- ical denominations, and the number of churches and members diminished rap- idly. In 1916 all the churches, except a few in Pennsylvania, had disbanded or discontinued all sei vices, arid from those in Pennsylvania no information could be obtained. Discussions with rewpect to the nature of the advent of Christ, and particularly in regard to the future life, resulted in the formation of other bodies, independent as to organization, but agreeing in the belief that the advent of Christ would be personal and premil- lennial and was near at hand; they also recognized the influence of Mr. Miller and those immediately associated with him. There are at present five distinct branches of Adventists, all of whom agree in the personal, premillennial com- ing of Christ. The Seventh-day Advent- ists and the Church of God are presby- terial, the others congregational, in their polity. All practise immersion as the mode of baptism. On the doctrines of fixing the date of Christ's second coming and of the immortality of the soul there have been divisions. (Special tenets of the various branches of Adventistic de- nominations will be mentioned under the respective headings.) The total number of communicant members in all Advent! at bodies is somewhat more than 136,000.

9

Advent of Clarlst, Second

Adventists. See Seventh-day Advent- is ts and The Church of God.

Advent of Christ, Second. In the Second Article of our holy Christian faith we confess; "From thence He [Christ] shall come to judge the quick and the dead." It is clear that the Creed here speaks of a second coming of Christ. This is in agreement with Scripture, for we are told, Heb. 9, 28 : "So Christ was once offered to bear the sins of many; and unto them that look for Him shall He appear the second time without sin unto salvation." This coming will be a visible coming. "This same Jesus which is taken up from you into heaven shall so come in like manner as ye have seen Him go into heaven." Acts 1, 11. It will be a coming visible to all men at the same time. "For as the lightning com- eth out of the east and shineth even unto the west, so shall also the coming of the Son of Man be." Matt. 24, 27. "And then shall appear the sign of the Son of Man in heaven; and then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall see the Son of Man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory." Matt. 24, 30. Cp. also Luke 17, 24;

1 Thoss. 5, 2. Christ will come in the fulness of His divine glory and majesty and in the company of all His holy angels. "When the Son of Man shall come in His glory and all the holy angels with Him, then shall He sit upon the throne of His glory." Matt. 25, 31. This coming of Christ must be regarded as a fact clearly revealed in Scripture. We hold it over against the scoffers of these last days. "Knowing this first, that there shall come in the last days scoffers, walking after their own lusts and saying, Where is the promise of His coming?"

2 Pet. 3, 3. 4. We also hold it over* against the forgetftilness of the believers, who on account of the weakness of their flesh are inclined to disregard the warn- ings of the Bible. The words of Jesus regarding the end of the world and His coming to judgment are especially im- portant in this connection, as Matt. 24 and 25 and Luke 21 show, as well as His emphatic word of admonition, Mark 13, 37 : "What I say unto you I say unto all, Watch ! " — We distinguish, accord- ing to the Bible, between this second coming of Christ in person for the pur- pose of judging the world and His com- ing in and through the Word of the Gos- pel as it is preached since His ascension. It is of this spiritual coming that Jesus speaks in John 14, 18: "I will not leave you comfortless, I will come to you." In this sense Christ is coming to the hearts of men until the end of time*

The Bible speaks of certain sign which would precede the second coming of Christ. Among these signs, accordinj to Matt. 24 and the parallel passages are abnormal conditions in the life o nations, such as wars and rumors o wars, pestilences, famines, enmity agains the Christian Church, then also certai irregularities in the realm of nature such as earthquakes, floods,, deviation in the course of the heavenly bodies, an< finally, in the Church, false teachers, de nial of the Gospel, the growing power o Antichrist. As the maladies and dis turbances in the life of the indlvidua are messengers of the coming dissolutio of the body, so these diseases of the bod politic herald the great Judgment an the end of the world. Luther writes "Heaven and earth creak like an ol house which is about to collapse and t break asunder and indicate altogethe that they have a premonition of the con ing end of the world, and that the da is near at hand," (St. Louis Ed., VI. 1840 ff.) Of the signs as thus proplu sied it is true that their description ] purposely held in a vein which make the exact determination of the day c Christ's second coming impossible. Th object of this arrangement is to brin about untiring vigilance and watchfti ness on the part of the Christians, as tli Lord says: "Watch therefore; for j know not what hour vour Lord dot come." Matt. 24, 42. All attempts < men at determining the exact day an hour of the Lord's second coming ai foolish from the outset; for He Himse says: "Of that day and hour knowet no man, no, not the angels of heaven, bi My Father only." Matt, 24, 36. Tl Lord urges the believers and all men i note the signs of His coming and to pn pare for the events which will imm< diately follow His second advent. C] Matt. 24; Luke 21 ; 2 Thess. 2. Of pa ticular importance is the necessity < guarding against false prophets an false Christs. Matt. 24, 5.

In this connection we may refer 1 signs of the Last Day and of the secoi coming of Christ which have been i] vented by men. Among these is the s< called millennium, or a thousand glo ious years of peace and happiness of tl Christian Church, this period ben placed by some before the second comir of Christ, by others after. Both viev are based upon a wrong understanding * Rev. 20 and of certain Messianic proph cies in the Old Testament. We qonfes in the Apology of the Augsburg Confe sion, Art. XVII, "Of Christ's Return 1 Judgment": "The Seventeenth Artie

Advocalns Diaboli

10

Agre, Canonical

the adversaries receive without excep- tion, in which we confess that at the consummation of the world Christ shall appear and shall raise tip all the dead and shall give to the godly eternal life and eternal joys, hut shall condemn the ungodly to lie punished with the devil without end." (Cono. Trigl., 335.) — See Ohiliasm.

Advocatus Diaboli (devil's advocate) . The name popularly given an official of the Congregation of Rites (see Roman Congregations] , whose duty it is to urge every possible argument against the canonization (q. i?.) of a new saint. He has a right to insist on the consideration of every objection, and any action taken in his absence is invalid. His proper title is promoter fidei.

Aemilie Juliane, Countess of Schwarz- burg-Rudolstadt, 1637 — 1706; educated in music and poetry, very productive hymn-writer, deep feeling, almost mys- tical; wrote: "Wer weiss, wie nahe mir mein Ende."

Aepinus. See Descent to Hell.

Aera. See Era.

Aerius. Presbyter and director of an asylum, or hospital at Sebaste in Pontus in the fourth century; an opponent of strong hierarchical tendencies and of -prayers for the dead; the "Aerians" named after him.

Aetniopian Movement. See Ethio- pian-ism.

Aetins, deacon of Antioch, extreme Arian as opposed to the Eusebians, or Semi-Arians-

Affinity, Spiritual. See Impediments of Marriage.

Afghanistan, country in Central Asia, northeast of India. Area, 250,000 square miles. Population, approximately 6,000,000. Languages, Persian and Push- tov. Inhabitants claim descent from Jews, but are divided into many racially distinct clans. Religion, Animistic and Mohammedan. There, are some traces of early Christianity (424). Carey trans- lated the Bible into the Pushtov lan- guage in 1825; revised in 1886. Fanati- cism of inhabitants permits no missions.

Africa. Africa Proconsularis, Nu- midia, Mauretania. Proconsular Africa, with the adjacent provinces of Numidia and Mauretania, came under the influ- ence of Christianity at an early date, perhaps at the end of the first century,- Christianity here developed a vigor and a growth unrivaled elsewhere in the Roman Empire except in Asia Minor. According to Harnack there were in 220

from 70 to 90 bishoprics; at the middle of the third century, 150; in the fourth century, 250; at the beginning of the fifth century, about 600. This beautiful field — not without some tares — was converted into a wilderness by Arian Vandalism and Moslem fanaticism. Africa produced probably the first Latin Bible version, the Itala,, the basis of Jerome's Vulgate. The Punic element of the population was served in its own language, though there is no evidence of a Punic translation of the Scriptures.

Africa, Missions in. The continent lying south of the Mediterranean, having an area of 11,262,000 sq. mi., with an additional island area of 239,000 sq. mi. Total number of inhabitants, estimated, 140,000,000. Africa embraces Egypt, Al- geria,- Morocco, the Sudan, Anglo-Egyp- tian Sudan, Abyssinia, British Somali- land, Italian Somaliland, Kenya Colony (formerly British East Africa), Belgian Congo, Kamerun ( French Mandate ) , Da- homey, French West Africa, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Gold Coast, Nigeria (Guinea), — the last four are now called British West Africa, — Angola, Rhodesia, Portuguese Africa, Bechuanaland Protectorate, the Union of South Africa, and Gorman Southwest Africa, which is a protecto- rate of the Union; German East Africa (British and Belgian mandatories) is to be known as Tanganyika Territory. — Mohammedanism prevails in Northern Africa and is rapidly pushing farther south beyond the equator. Christian missions have done much work in Cen- tral and Southern Africa, but there is still much unoccupied territory.

Agapae, or love-feasts, in the early Church (cf. Acts 2, 42) were simple meals partaken of in common by the as- sembled congregation as an expression of brotherly love. Connected at first with the celebration of the Eucharist, they were separated from the latter already in the second century. In course of time the abuses attending these feasts (al- ready censured by Paul; cf. 1 Cor. 11, 20) led to their total abolition.

Age, Canonical. The age at which the t Roman Church admits its subjects to various obligations and privileges. A child, upon attaining the "age of rea- son," about the seventh year, is held capable of mortal sin and of receiving the sacraments of penance and extreme unction, becomes subject to the law of the Church, and can contract an engage- ment of marriage. Shortly after, con- firmation and Communion are adminis- tered. Girls may contract marriage at twelve, boys at fourteen. The obligation

Agenda

11

Akron Rule

of fasting begins at twenty -one and ends at sixty. A deacon must be twenty- two years old; a priest, twenty-four; a bishop, thirty.

Agenda. A book containing direc- tions for, and exact forms of, all the sacred acts performed in the liturgical worship of the Church, both public and private. The derivation of the word is most probably to be found in the missas agere of the Western Church, the word "agenda" ( neutr. plur. ) thus designating that which was to be performed by the officiating clergyman (priest or pastor) in administering the means of grace. The use of written forms has been traced back to the fifth century, the texts before that time having been preserved chiefly, by oral tradition. The Roman Church eventually had a great number of service books, all coming under the general name Rituale, while the Lu- theran Church early adopted the name Agenda. At the present time a distinc- tion is being observed, the acts of public worship, including all prayers, collects, and lessons being spoken of as the Liturgy, and all special acts of the pas- tor, particularly baptisms, marriages, the communion of the sick, and funerals being included in the Agenda proper. — The history of the Lutheran books of worship may be said to have begun with the publication of Luther's Formula Mis* K(ie et Communioms pro Ecclesia Witten- berg ensi, in November, 1523, followed, a little more than two years later, by his tier man Mass and Order of Services, which, as Luther expressly stated, was not intended to supersede or change the Formula Missae. As far as occasional sacred acts are concerned, the influence of Luther's Taufbuechlein of 1523 and of, his Traubueohlein of 1534 may be traced to the present day. Many of the Lu- theran church orders of the sixteenth century, indeed, gave only the order of the parts of service, without the texts, referring, at the same time, to the ver- sions of Luther; but others offered a complete liturgical apparatus. The liturgical books of the latter part of the sixteenth century may roughly be divided into three classes. The first of these groups includes the forms that were most conservative, following, in general, the traditional uses, among these being the Brandenburg of 1540, the Pfalz-!N"eu- burg of 1543, and tjie Austrian of 1571. To the second group belong all the church orders of the Saxon-Lutheran type, based upon Luther's work, such as the Prus- sian of 1525 and the Pomeranian of 1535. The third group includes the so- called mediating type, mediating between

the Lutheran and the Reformed service. The beginning of this type was made by Bucer, Capito, and Hedio, in 1525, and it persisted chiefly in Southern Germany. The tendency in the Lutheran Church of America is to return to the best develop- ment of the Lutheran spirit in the six- teenth century, both in the liturgy used in public worship and in the forms em- ployed for the special sacred acts.

Agnosticism, a philosophic doctrine, developed by Huxley and Spencer (qq. v.}, which limits human knowledge to that which is known through the senses. In religion it denies the possibility of attaining certain knowledge of the exist- ence and nature of God and of the super- natural world in general. Though theo- i etically distinct from atheism ( q. v ) , it practically has the same vitiating character.

Ag-obard of Lyons. Prominent theo- logian of Gallican Church; b. in Spain, 779; d. in Saintonge, Western France, in 840. Trained by Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, whose successor he became; one of the bishops who forced Louis le Debonnaire to his humiliating penance at Soissons; wrote theological treatises against Adoption! sm, etc.

Agricola (Schneider), John, b. 1492 at Eisleben, studied at Wittenberg, kept minutes of the Leipzig Debate in 1519, sent by Luther to reform Frankfurt, pas- tor at Eisleben, at University of Witten- berg since 1537, court preacher at Bran- denburg since 1540, one of the authors of the Augsburg Interim in 1548, d. 1566. See Antinomian Controversy.

Ahlbrand, Albert H., buggy manu- facturer; b. Seymour, Ind., April 27, 1872. Concordia College, Fort Wayne, Ind., 1886. Financial Secretary, Central Dis- trict, Missouri Synod. Originator of "Ahlbrand Plan." Member of Board of Directors 1923.

Ahlfeld, Joharm. Friedrich; b. 1810, d. 1884, Leipzig; one of the most popu- lar and influential Lutheran pastors; pastor at Halle, since 1851 at St. Nicolai in Leipzig.

Ahriman. See Zoroastrianism.

Anura Hazdah.. See Zoroastrianism.

Ailly, Pierre d'. See D> Ailly, Pierre.

Ainos. See Japan.

Ainswortli, Henry, 1571—1623. Learned champion of English Separa- tists; b. near Norwich; fled to Amster- dam, 1593; teacher there of Separatists till Ms death. Hebraist; .controver- sialist.

Akron Bule. See Galesburg Rule,

o, Jo1mnne.s

,Yll>recht, C. J.

ALasco, Johannes, 1499 — 1500. Pol- ish nobleman, Calvmistie theologian; b. Warsaw; d. Pircliow. Became Prot- estant and left Poland with recommen- dations of Polish king; superintendent of East Frisia, of Church of Foreign Protestants, London, and of "Reformed churches, Poland; failed to leconcile Re- formed and Lutherans; prepared, with seventeen others, the Polish version of the Bible.

Alaska, the great northwestern terri- tory of the United States. Area, 590,884 square miles. Population, approximately 100,000, mostly Indians, with some 15,000 Eskimos. Territory bought from Russia in 1867. Since discovery of the placer gold fields there has been a rapid in- crease of the white population. The Rus- sian (Orthodox Greek Catholic Church) had some mission-stations in the Aleu- tian Islands since 1793. Other mission- work was done by John Veniaminoff, who was later made Archbishop Innocent (1850). A Greek Catholic diocese has been established for the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the seat of which is in San Francisco, CaL, with a membership of possibly 50,000, of which over 10,000 are Indians. — Protestant missions are con- ducted by the American Presbyterians, the Moravians, the Protestant Episcopal Church (Dr. Jackson since 1877), the Baptists, the Congregationalists, the Lu- therans (United Norwegian Church of America), the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Church Mission Society, and the Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant of America.

Alb. See Vestments, R. C.

Albania, A small country in the* mountains of the Balkan Peninsula, bounded by the Adriatic Sea, by Jugo- slavia, and Greece; half -civilized moun- taineers call themselves Skipetar; many have turned Mohammedan, but the Al- banian Orthodox Church is still fairly strong. See also Greek Catholic Qhurclt.

Alberta. See Canada.

Albert, Heinrich, 1604 — 1651, studied music at Dresden, law at Leipzig; organ- ist at Dresden and Koenigsberg; ranked high as poet, but especially as com- poser; many of his hymn-tunes in use to this day; father of the German Lied; wrote: "Gott des Hrmmels und der Erden."

Albertus Magnus. Founder of the most flourishing period of scholasticism; b. at Lauingen, Bavaria, 1193; d. at Co- logne, 1280. Studied at Padua, where he entered the Dominican order, served as lector of convent schools of his order in

Germany; became gonoral of his order for Germany after studying theology at Paris; later bishop of Rogensburg for two years; many-sided author, which gave him the title of "Doctor Universa- lis"; wrote a commentary on the flni- tentiae of Peter Lombard and a tfiiW'- mum Theologid'C ; prepared way for modern conflict between theology and false science.

Alberus, Erasmus, 1500 — 1553, one of the Prussian reformers, at first school- master in Frankfurt-on-tlie-Main and in Heldenhergen, then pastor at Berlin, at Magdeburg, and elsewhere, finally Gen- eral Superintendent in Mecklenburg; prominent hymn-writer, the ruggodnesH of whose poetry has been compared with that of Luther; wrote. "Gott hat das Kvangelium"; uClott der Vater wohn' uns bei"; "Nun front ouch, Gotten Kin- der alF."

Albigenses, Cntsadc. The Albigen- ses, together with the Bogomiles and the Cathari or Cathariats (<jq. T.), were a New Maniehean sect found principally in Northern Italy and in Southern France, They believed in a peculiar dualism, with a god of light and a prince of this world, the angels being the *'lost sheep of the house of Israel," and Jesus only appais entry dying for the redemption of men (see Docetism). When arguments against these heretics failed, the inquisition or- ganized a crusade against them. The nrwC attack, in 1181—82, had no result, but between 1208 and 1229 a relentless war was waged under the leadership of Ar- nold of Citeaux and Count Simon of Montfort. After the death of Simon, in 1218, the heretics rallied, and several of them, notably the counts of Toulouse, re- " gained their lands; but a new crusade was directed against them with disas- trous consequences for their leaders. Some of them held out in spite of all re- verses arid cruel treatment, and they do not finally disappear until the middle of the fourteenth century.

Albimis, Johanja Georg, 1024 — 1079, pastor in Naumburg; poems forceful, lively, Scriptural, religious; wrote; "Alle Menschen muessen sterben"; "Straf mich nicht in deinem Zorn"; "Welt, ade ! "

Albrecht, Christian. Johanii, b. July 13, 1847, Eschenau, Wuerttemberg; edu- cated at St. Crischona; came to Minne- sota, 1872; pastor Greenwood; NewUhn, since 1882. President of Minnesota Synod, 1883—94; father of the college and practical seminary at New Ulm (1884); acted as first director and taught some branches under Director

Albreelit, M.

Alexandria

Hoyer as long as New Ulm remained a theological seminary (1893). Active in forming Joint Synod of Wisconsin and Other States; president of China Mis- sion Society, which sent first missionary (E. L.Arridt)'.

Albrecht, M. See Eoster at end of Ijook.

Albrecht, Margrave of Branderiburg- CTulmbach, 1522—1557, the Younger, Ivangelical prince, daring in his youth, ne of the Prussian reformers; wrote Was mein Gott will, das g'scheh' all- eit."

Albreclxt of Prussia, Margrave of Irandenlurg-A.ns'bacli; b. 1490; Grand /faster of the German Order when only wenty-one. His "father-in-God" was )siander of Nuernberg. In 1523 Luther ncouraged him to marry and secularize iis order, which he did. Introduced the Reformation; founded the University of Coenigsberg in 1544. The Osiandrian •ontroversy embittered his last years. Che labors of Chemnitz and Moerlin in 567 brought peace, and Albrecht died n 1568, praying, "Lord, into Thy hands

commend my spirit.'3

Albrechtsbrueder. (See Evangelical Issociation. ) A religious sect in the Jnited States, very similar to the Metho- lists in doctrine. It was founded by Jacob Albrecht ( Albright ) , who was born n Pennsylvania in 1759, traveled as an evangelist, and organized his adherents n ''classes" in 1800. He was appointed oishop in 1807. In 1816 the denomina- tion assumed the title of Evangelical As- sociation of North America.

Alcuin. Prominent theologian and edu- cator under Charlemagne; b. in North- umbria, England, about 730 or 735; d. at Tours, France, 804. Educated in cathe- dral school of York, made visits to France and Rome; became head of school and also of cathedral library of York; after 781 on Continent, where he was head of the court school of Charlemagne, which became a nursery of ecclesiastical and liberal education for the whole kingdom; wrote several theological treatises, also against Adoptionism (q. v.).

Alderson, Eliza Sibbald, nee Dykes, 1818 — 1889, married a chaplain of the 'Established Church; lived last in York- shire; wrote: "Lord of Glory, Who hast -Bought Us"; "And Now, Beloved Lord, Thy Soul Resigning."

Alesius (Alane), Alexander, b. 1500, converted by Patrick Hamilton, fled from prison to Wittenberg, took Melanchthon's ..Loci to King Henry VlII of England, professor at Frankfurt,, took part in

many religious conferences, in England under Edward VI, twice rector of the Leipzig University, d. 1565.

Aleutian Islands, belonging to the territory of Alaska" (U. S.), extend about 1,600 miles from east to west. Area, 6,391 sq. mi. Population, about 3,000. The natives belong to Kamchatkan stock'. The Greek Catholic (Russian Orthodox) Church, has some mission-stations there.

Alexander VI (Pope). See Popes.

Alexander of Hales. Scholastic the- ologian, known as Doctor irrefragabilis (firm, incontroversible) and Theologorum monarcJia; b. Hales, Gloucestershire, England; d. Paris, 1245. Educated in monastery at Hales, studied and lectured at Paris, acquired great fame as teacher of theology, entered order of St, Francis in 1222; his great work, Summa Uni- versae Theologme, in which the character indelebilis (not to be erased or removed) of baptism, confirmation, ordination, and other sacraments of the Catholic Church is taught.

Alexander, James Waddell, 1804 to 1859, studied at Princeton; professor of rhetoric, after an interval professor of church history, Princeton; wrote trans- lations of hymns, among them: "I Leave Thee Not."

Alexander, William, Anglican Pri- mate of All Ireland; b. Londonderry, 1824; archbishop of Armagh, 1896; d. Torquay, 1911. Witness of the Psalms to Christ; contributor to The Speaker's Commentary; etc.

Alexandria, School of Interpretation and Doctrine. The Alexandrian school of theology, represented chiefly by such men as Clement and Origen, aimed at a recon- ciliation of philosophy with Christianity, just as Philonism had attempted a simi- lar alliance between philosophy and Ju- daism. Some of the early apologists, notably Jiistin the Philosopher, represent a similar mode of thought, hut it re- mained for the Alexandrians to elaborate a complete system of philosophico-Chris- tian theology. According to Clement, Greek philosophy served, under divine providence, a propaedeutic purpose in the education of the race, was, in fact, an in- tellectual schoolmaster to Christ, just as the Law of Moses was a moral and a re- ligious one. Origen compares the wisdom of the Greeks to "the jewels which the Israelites took out of Egypt and turned into ornaments for the Sanctuary, though they also wrought them into the golden calf." The synthesis attempted by the Alexandrians, though avowedly resting on a Scriptural basis and purporting to

Alford, Henry

Altai-

offer tlic true gnosis in opposition to the jalsc gnosls of the Gnostics, shows espe- cially the influence of Plato and embodies muck imsciiplural and antiscriptural speculation. And again, it "betrayed its exponents into an allegorical method of exegesis, which lost itself in the most extravagant and arbitrary fancies.

Alford, Henry, 1810—1871, educated at Cambridge; held several positions as clergyman, also important appointments, such as that of Fellow of Trinity; most important undertaking : edition of Greek Testament, the result of twenty years' labor; numerous hymnological and poet- ical works, noted for musical quality; wrote, among others: k'Come, Ye Thank- ful People, Come" ; aTen Thousand Times Ten Thousand."

Al Presco. A species of painting which is done chiefly on fresh plaster, the colors usually being water-colors which are not affected by the setting of the plaster (catacombs and early mural paintings ) .

Algeria, French colony in Northern Africa, part of the former Barbary States. Area, 343,500 sq. mi. Popula- tion, 5,500,000, native Berbers predomi- nating, with possibly 65,000 Jews. Islam is the dominant religion. Missions by Algiers Mission Band.

Allegheny Synod. See United Lu- theran Church.

Allegri, Gregorio, 1585 — 1652 (or 1584—1662), belonged to the family of the Correggios; noted composer, studied music under Nanini, later member of the Sistine choir; one of the first musicians to compose for stringed instruments; his most celebrated work a Miserere for two choirs, five- and four -part score, sung in Rome during Holy Week; renditions elsewhere have proved disappointing.

Allen, Oswald, 1816—1878, born at Kirkby Lonsdale, where he resided the greater part of his life, on staff of local bank; published Hymns of the Christian Life, among others : "To-day Thy Mercy Calls Us."

Allgemeine Evangeliscli-Lutheri- sche Konferenz. An organization con- sisting of representatives of the various Lutheran bodies of Germany, which has met since 1868 as need required. The first president was Harless, who was fol- lowed by Kliefoth. The official organ of the Konferenz is the Allgemeine Evange- lisch-Lutherische Kirchen&eitung, edited for many years by Luthardt, at present by W. Laible. With it is connected the Theologische LiteraturUatt. Some of the leaders of the organization were con-

nected also with the Kisenaeli Conference and with the Litthcrische Gottetikastcn (qq, v.).

Alloiosis. A figure of speech by which Zwingli construed all those passages of Scripture in which anything is ascribed to the divine nature of Christ or to the entire Christ which properly is the prop- erty of the human nature only, and vice versa. Thus, when it is said: *kOuglit not Christ to have suffered these things and to enter into His glory?" (Luke 24, 28) Zwingli declared that the term "Christ" in this passage referred only to His human nature, since it is a mere figure of speech if the suffering and death of our Lord is ascribed to His divine nature. The purpose of the Alloiosis, as used by Zwingli, was the denial of the co mmunioatio idiomalum.

Allocution. A solemn address deliv- ered by the Pope to the cardinals gath- ered in secret consistory, usually pub- lished later, to present the Pope's position on some matter.

Allwardt, Dr.ELA., 1840—1010, b. in Mecklenburg, educated at Fort Wayne and St. Louis, one of the opponents of Walther in the Predestination Contro- versy, especially at the conference of Mis- souri Synod pastors at Chicago, 1880. Left Missouri Synod and joined Ohio, with a number of others, in 1881. Con- tinued to oppose the doctrine of predes- tination as taught by Missouri till his death.

Alpha Synod of the Ev. Luth. Church of Freedmen in America, organized May 8, 1889, by four pastors who had been or- dained by the North Carolina Synod, Da- vid Koonts, president, W. Philo Phifer, secretary, Sam Holt, Nathan Clapp. When Koonts died, the synod died with him. Phifer, in the name of the other two pastors, wrote to President Schwau of the Missouri Synod. The result wns that the Synodicai Conference took up the work among the colored people in North Carolina.

Alt, Heinricli. Preacher and litur- giolqgist, b. Breslau, 1811; d. Berlin, 1893; educated in Berlin under Ncandor, teacher and preacher at the Charit<5 Hospital; wrote: Der christliche Kul~ bus, in two parts: "Der kirchliche Got- tesdienst" and "Das Barchenjahr."

Altar. In the Lutheran Church, a table for the celebration of the Lord's Supper and the place where the litur- gical part of the service centers. The altar is often richly ornamented, also with a retabulum or rereclos, but it is in no sense representative of a sepulcher or sarcophagus.

Altar

15

Aiuana Society

Altar (Paintings). Oil-paintings placed in the central panel of the rcredos triptych of an altar, the choice of pic- tures being guided by the consideration that the scene from the life of Christ should be of general significance.

Altar-Cards. Three cards, containing parts of the ritual of the Mass, which are placed on the altar, under the crucifix, at the celebration of Mass. The priest is expected to have the ritual committed to memory; but if his memory should lapse, he can refer to the cards.

Alteiiburg, Joharni Michael, 1584 to 1640, at first teacher and precentor, later pastor near and in Erfurt; good musi- cian and composer; wrote: "Verzage nicht, du Haeuflein klein."

Altenburger Religionsgespraech. A colloquy held at Altenburg, Saxony, October 20, 1568, to March 9, 1569, be- tween the theologians of Wittenberg and of Jena, on questions pertaining to justi- fication, free will, and adiaphora. The colloquy did not succeed in effecting an understanding.

Altenburg Theses, The. 1. The true Church, in the most perfect sense, is the totality \Q-esamtheit] of all true be- lievers, who from the beginning to the end of the world, from among all peoples and tongues, have been called and sanc- tified by the Holy Ghost through the Word. And since God alone knows these true believers (2 Tim. 2, 19), the Church is also called invisible. No one belongs to this true Church who is not spiritually united with Christ, for it is the spiritual body of Jesus Christ. 2. The name of the true Church also belongs to all those visible societies in whose midst the Word of God is purely taught and the holy Sacraments are administered according to the institution of Christ. True, in this Church there are also godless men, hypocrites, and heretics, but they are not true members of the Church, nor do they constitute the Church. 3. The name CJmrcli, and in a certain sense the name true Church, also belongs to such visible societies as are united in the confession of a falsified faith and therefore are guilty of a partial falling away from the truth, provided they retain in its purity so much of the Word of God and the holy Sacraments as is necessary that children of God may thereby be born. When such societies are called true Churches, the intention is not to state that they are faithful, but merely that they are real Churches, as opposed to secular organizations [G-cmeinsvhaftcn]. 4. It is not improper to apply the name Church to heterodox societies, but that is

in accord with the manner of speech of the Word of God itself. And it is not immaterial that this high name is granted to such societies, for from this follows : ( 1 ) That members also of such societies may be saved; for without the Church there is no salvation. 5. (2) That the outward separation of a heterodox society from the orthodox Church is not necessarily a separation from the univer- sal Christian Church or a relapse into heathenism and does not yet deprive that society of the name Church. 6. (3) Even heterodox societies have church power; even among them the treasures of the Church may be validly dispensed, the ministry established, the Sacraments val- idly administered, and the keys of the kingdom of heaven exercised. 7. Even heterodox societies are not to be dis- solved, but reformed, 8. The orthodox Church is to be judged principally by the common, orthodox, and public con- fession to which the members acknowl- edge themselves to have been pledged and which they profess. These theses were defended by Pastor C. F. W. Walther at the historic disputation held at Alten- burg, Mo,, in April, 1841. His chief op- ponent was a lawyer, Adolf Marbach. The theses saved the Saxon Lutherans from disorganization. See also Missouri Bynod.

Altenburger Bibelwerk. Not a com- mentary, but the Bible reprinted with Luther's prefaces and marginal notes, summaries by Vitus Dietrich, prefaces and prayers by Franciscus Vierling, for devotional purposes. (3 vols.)

Altruism. Term invented by Comte (French philosopher, 1798—1857) to de- note unselfish regard for the welfare of others, opposed to egoism, and considered by him to be the only moral principle of life.

Altruist Community. See Commu- nistic Societies.

Amana Society, or Community of True Inspiration, or Inspir&tionists. A German communistic religious society in Iowa. It traces its origin back to 1714, when separatists in Northern and Western Germany, stimulated by the preaching of the French Camisard proph- ets, under the leadership of Eberhard Gruber and Johann Rock, organized In- spirations gemeinden. The movement flourished for a generation, then declined almost completely, but was revived, 1817 and the following years, in Hesse, the Palatinate, and Alsace, through the in- fluence of the new Werkseuge Michael Krausert, Barbara Heinemann, an illiter- ate Alsatian peasant girl, and Christian

16

American Bil»le Society

M«»tz. When they refused to send their children to the state school*, swear alle- giance, and bear arms, the government used repressive measures, as a result of which they began to Immigrate to Amer- ica, 1842." They first settled near Buffalo and organized under the name of Eben- ezer Society, 1843. Jn 1855 they removed to Iowa Co,, Iowa, where they bought 26,000 acres of land, laid out seven vil- lages, of which the principal one ^ia Amana, and Incorporated as Amana So- ciety 1859. The community is primarily religious, and their communism, which at first was incidental, has been made to serve this primary purpose. They hold all property in common and carry on agriculture, manufacture, and trade. The entire government is vested in thirteen trustees. Religiously the society is di- vided into three Abieilungen, or classes, graded according to their piety. Their main religious tenets, as contained in Grlaubensbekenntnis dcr icahren Inspire- tionsgemeinde and KatechetiscJier Cnter- richt ton der Lehre des Hells, include, besides the fundamental doctrine of pres- ent-day inspiration, belief in the Trinity, in the resurrection of the dead, and in the Judgment, but also in justification through forgiveness of sins and holy life, perfectionism, and millenarianism. The Sacraments are not means of grace. Baptism is rejected, and the Lord's Sup- per, or Liebesmafolj is celebrated when- ever the Spirit prompts them, that is, about every two years, when the highest Abteilung also practises the rite of foot- washing. Tliere is a possibility of salva- tion after death, and the wicked are not punished eternally. Oaths are forbidden. Prominent in their religious life is an annual Untersucftunff, or examination, of the spiritual condition of each member. At the services, which are conducted in German and held twice every Sunday, the Bible and the "Inspired word" of the Werkstenffe is read. Marriages are fre- quent, but celibate life is looked upon with favor. The society reported a mem- bership of 1,756 in 1906 and 1,534 in 1916.

Ambrose, ^Noted leader and teacher of the Western Church; b. Treves, 340; d. Milan, 3$7. Educated in Rome for a legal career; appointed consular prefect for Upper Italy; took up his residence in Milan about 370. After death of Bishop Auxentius a dispute between the ' orthodox and Arian parties caused a se- vere quarrel which threatened the peace of the city. Ambrose, as magistrate, was present to maintain order, when the people, suddenly .turning to him as a new candidate, transferred him from his offi-

cial position to the episcopate. Since he was still a catechumen, his baptism took place at once, and eight days later, in 374, he was consecrated bishop. Ambrose was distinguished for his defense of the orthodox faith and for his firm stand in all matters revealed in Scripture, oppos- ing both paganism and heresy with equal zeal. He did not hesitate to rebuke even the emperor when he permitted himself to become guilty of a massacre. As a teacher of the Church, Ambrose was con- cerned more with the practical and ethi- cal side of Christianity than with the scientifically theological; among his works are *De Offidis Ministrorum (Of the Offices of Christian Ministers), De Virginians (Of Virgins), and others. Toward the end of his life he exhibited a stronger tendency toward asceticism ( q. r. ) , for he emphasized the supposed value of celibacy, of voluntary poverty, and of the martyr's death. He did much for the reform and development of church music, not only in hymns, but also in the liturgy which is associated with his name. See Ambrosian Chant.

Ambrosian Chant. The mode of sing- ing or chanting in the form of a lively, rhythmical, congregational singing, based upon the ancient Greek musical system in four keys (Dorian, in d; Phrygian, in e; Eolian, in f; Mixolydian, in g), introduced by St. Ambrose in the Cathe- dral in Milan, whence it rapidly spread throughout the Occident.

Ambrosiaster. Designation of the unknown author of a Commentary on t"he Thirteen Epistles of Paul, a work which was commonly ascribed to Ambrose of Milan, Opinions differ as to whether the real author is Hilary of Poitiers, or Hilarius, prefect of Rome, or Isaac the Jew, a professed convert.

American, and Foreign Bible So- ciety (Baptist). Founded April, 1837, as a result of the Baptist difficulty with the American Bible Society. (See Amer- ican Bible Society.} It was agreed that in English the commonly received version should be used. This led to a further split in 1850 and the founding of the American Bible Union.

American Bible Society. Headquar- ters at New York. "A voluntary asso- ciation, which has for its object the cir- culation of the Holy Scriptures in the commonly received version without note or comment." Its formation was sug- gested by the success of the British and Foreign Bible Society, During the Revo- lutionary War, Congress, because of the scarcity of Bibles, voted in 1777 to print 30,000 copies, and when, on account of

Am.eric*uu Bible Uuiou

17

A. L. P, B.

want of type and paper, this could not be done, a committee was directed to import 20,000 copies from Europe. When the embargo, however, prevented this, Con- gress in 1782 passed a resolution in favor of an edition of the Bible published by Robert Aitkin, of Philadelphia, which it pronounced "a pious and laudable under- taking, subservient to the interests of re- ligion." The number of copies issued did not meet the demand, and the price was beyond the reach of the poor. Local, in- dependent Bible societies were formed, and at the suggestion of the Rev. Samuel J. Mills a circular was issued in 1815 by the Bible Society of New Jersey to the several Bible societies in the country, in- viting them to meet in New York the ensuing year. On May 8, 1816, a con- vention was held at New York, sixty delegates representing thirty-five Bible societies in ten States and the District of Columbia. Elias Bouclinot was chosen president. All the original officers gave their labors gratuitously. The first paid officer was John Nitchie, agent and ac- countant since 1810. The constitution provided that only the text of the King James Version be used. The principles of this English version were to be fol- lowed in the translations, that is, they should adhere strictly to the original text and not feature the doctrines of any particular church. Tn 1822 the Bible House on Nassau Street was erected and in 1852 the Bable House in Astor Place. Tn 1835 Baptist missionaries in Burma published, with funds of the Society, translations into Burmese, in which the Greek words haptismos and "bapttso were rendered by words signifying immersion and to immerse. The managers, in ac- cordance with the constitution, refused to publish such versions, because they had the force of a comment. Many of the Baptist churches took offense at this action, and after a heated and protracted controversy many Baptists withdrew from the Society.

American Bible Union. Organized in 1850 by seceders from the American and Foreign Bible Society. A special aim of the society was to revise the com- mon English version. Itaptismos was in their version rendered by "immersion," and "bapti&ein by "immerse.3' Even among Baptists the Society met with opposition.

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Founded Sep- tember 5, 1810, by the General Associa- tion of Congregational Churches of Mas- sachusetts, at Bradford, Mass. First missionaries sent out were Adoniram Judson, Samuel Newell, Samuel Nott,

Concordia Cyclopedia

and others, 1812, to India. In 1812 the Presbyterian churches resolved to work through the Ameiican Board; in 1814 the Associate Reformed Church joined; in 1816 the Dutch Reformed Church; later again the German Reformed Church. In 1825 the Presbyterian United Foreign Missions Society, formed for work among the Indians, by resolu- tion turned over its work to the Ameri- can Board. A separation of the Old- school people took place in 1837. The New-school Presbyterians continued the relation until 1870 and then withdrew to join the reunited Presbyterian Board. In 1857 the Reformed Dutch withdrew to organize their own Foreign Missions Board. They were followed in quick suc- cession by the Associate Reformed Pres- byterians and the German Reformed Church. Since 1870 the American Board represents practically only Congrega- tional Churches.

There is no purely American society that has engaged more extensively in foreign mission work than the American Board. Associated with it are several women's societies. Fields: Asia: Japan, Korea (Chosen), China, Philippine Islands, India, Ceylon, Transcaucasia, Asiatic Turkey, Syria; Africa: Angola, Union of South Africa, Southern Eho- desia, Portuguese East Africa; Oceania: Micronesia; North America: Mexico; Europe: Turkey, Bulgaria, Czecho-SIo- vakia, Spain.

American Catholic Church. An in- dependent organization of Roman Catho- lics, who have outwardly severed their relation with the Church of Rome, but still adhere to its doctrines. See Old Catholics.

American Lutheran Publicity Bu- reau. Owing to the fact that the Lu- theran Church was little known by the American people and also much mis- understood, and being therefore convinced that the Lutheran Church, its doctrines, and its work, ought to be given more publicity, the American Lutheran Pub- licity Bureau was organized in New York City in 1913 (1914). The constitution adopted October 26, 1920, being essen- tially the same as that adopted at the organization, says that the object of the A. L. P. B. shall be t£to make known the teachings, principles, practise, and his- tory of the Lutheran Church by spread- ing proper literature, by lecture courses, through the public press, and by means of other publicity methods." "Any com- municant member of a congregation con- nected with the Synodical Conference or of a congregation in doctrinal affiliation

"American

18

American Rescue Worltcrti

with the Synodical Conference, or a so- ciety connected with such a congregation, or such a congregation may become a member of the American Lutheran Pub- licity Bureau on payment of at least one dollar annual dues." The Bureau has a Free Tract Fund and a Free Bible Fund. Its official magazine is the American Lu- theran. The work is supported by the annual dues and by voluntary contribu- tions. A board of directors, consisting of the officers and an even number of pastors arid laymen, the total member- ship not exceeding twenty-four, conducts the Bureau's business in the intervals be- tween the meetings of the general body.

"American Luther anism," falsely so called, was a movement fathered by S. S. Schmucker, B. Kurtz, S. Sprecher, and other leaders of the General Synod about the middle of the nineteenth century. It was "essentially Calvinistic, Methodistic, Puritanic, in differ entistic, and unionistic, hence nothing less than truly Lutheran; denied and assailed every doctrine dis- tinctive of Lutheranism , . .; attacked what was most sacred to Luther and most prominent in the Lutheran Con- fessions." It was sponsored by B. Kurtz in the Observer, by Weyl in Luth. Hirtcn- stimme, and later by the American Lu- theran (1865). The promoters of this movement called the champions of the Lutheran Confessions "Symbolists" and pictured them as "extremists of the most dangerous sort." American Luther aniam was the result of fraternizing with the sects, of the influence of the Prussian Union, and of the Methodistic revivals, and the reaction against the confes- sionalism of the Tennessee Synod and the Missouri Synod, as well as against the awakening Lutheran consciousness in other circles. Though decrying the Lu- theran Confessions, the leaders of the movement proposed a "Definite Plat- form'* (q.v.) as a confession of faith on which, they hoped to unite the Lutheran Church of America. The movement finally led to the disruption of the Gen- eral Synod in 1866, but its spirit still survives in some quarters in the twen- tieth century.

American Protective Association. (A. P. A.) History: A secret, prescrip- tive society, an offshoot of the political secret society known as the Know-noth- ing Party. The A. P. A. was founded by Hy. F. Bowers, a lawyer, at Clinton, Iowa, in 1887, to combat the political machinations of the Roman Catholic Church, especially its attacks upon the public school. After 1892 it spread rapidly, absorbing many of the older

patriotic orders, until in 1896 it counted from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 members. Its woman auxiliary is known as the Wom- en's Historical Society. A split in ihe association, in 1895, resulted in the for- mation of the National Assembly Patri- otic League, which, however, did not survive long. In recent years the Amer- ican Protective Association has been in- active. In 1923, however, the Fellowship Forum (Masonic) noted "evidences of awakened activity." (Cp. Vol. II I, No. 2, p. 4, June 30, 1023.) — 0&/<?cte: 1) "Por- petual separation of Church and State.

2) Undivided fealty to the Republic.

3) Acknowledgment of the right of the State to determine the scope of its own jurisdiction. 4) Maintenance of a free, non-sectarian system of education. 5 ) Pro- hibition of any Government grant or spe- cial privilege to any sectarian body what- ever. 6) Purification of the ballot. 7) Temporary suspension of immigra- tion. 8) Equal taxation of all except public property. 9) Prohibition of con- vict labor and the subjection to public inspection of all private institutions where persons of either sex are secluded with or against their consent." — Meth- ods of Work : The A. P. A. endeavored to further its cause by lectures, pamphlets, periodicals, and the public press, which it influenced against the parochial school. In 1894 there were about 70 A. P. A. weeklies in existence. — Religious A s~ pccts : The A. P. A. maintained a secret ritual and obligated its members by an oath of secrecy. A complete discussion is found in the Congressional Record of October 31, 1893.

American Rescue Workers. This branch of the Salvation Army originated in 1882, when Thomas E. Moore, who had come to America to superintend tbn work here, withdrew from the organisation be- cause of differences between himself and General Booth* in regard to the financial administration and began independent work. This movement was incorporated in 1884, and in 1885 an amended charter was granted to it under the name of "Salvation Army of America." Subse- quent changes in the Salvation Army in the United States resulted in the return of a considerable number of officers to that organization, but about 25 posts re- fused to return, and these reorganised under the name of "American Salvation Army." In 1913 the name was changed to "American Rescue Workers." In its general doctrine and polity this body is very similar to the older one, except that it is a Christian Church, with the usual Sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, rather than an evangelistic or

American S. S. Union

19

Anabaptists

philantlnopic organization. However, the organization does general philan- thropic work. Statistics of 1910; 29 or- ganizations, Gil members, 2 church edi- iiecs, 13 Sunday-schools, and 438 pupils. American Sunday-School Union. "The First-clay or Sunday-school So- ciety/' organized in Philadelphia, Janu- ary 11, 1791, composed of members of different denominations, including the Society of Friends, was the first general Sunday-school organization. The teach- ers were paid for their services The New York Sunday-school Union was or- ganized in 1810; the Philadelphia Sun- day- and Adult School Union in 1817. The last-named organization was in 1824 merged in the American Sunday-school Union. It is composed of members be- longing to different denominations, pub- lishes Sunday-school literature, founds Sunday-schools, and distributes Bibles and tracts.

Ammon, Christoph Friedrich von; b. 17CO, d. 1850 at Dresden as court- preacher and vice-president of the con- sistory ; considered the most skilful de- fender of popular rationalism.

Amsdorf, Nicholas von; b 1483, d. 1565. One of first students at Wit- tenberg in 1502; professor; intimate with Luther; went with him to Worms without a safe-conduct. In 1542 Luther consecrated him Bishop of Naumburg; ousted after Battle of Muehlberg. Op- posed Interim. Faithful to the captive John Frederick. After 1552 at Eisenach, without office, but actually at head of church affairs. "Good works are harm- ful to salvation/' he, said against Ma- jor's: "Good works are necessary to sal- vation."

Amice. See Vestments, R. 0.

Amulets. The wearing of amulets, or charms, objects supposed to have magical power of waiding off danger and pro- tecting against evil spirits, has been al- most universal among pagans in all ages. The semipagan influx of the fourth cen- tury brought them into the Christian Church, where they were denounced as a species of idolatry. The increasing degeneracy of the Church, however, per- mitted them to survive under a Chris- tian coloring. Relics enclosed in costly cases, called phylacteries, were worn as potent protectors; holy water, blessed salt, and consecrated wafers were car- ried on the person. Contact with the East during the Crusades multiplied the talismans and charms of the supersti- tious Middle Ages. Koman writers strongly denounce the use of amulets, but it is not easy to see wherein these

differ from the objects worn by devout Romanists — the endless variety of scap- ulars (q.v.}} crosses, medals, and medal- lions, all blessed or consecrated by con- tact with relics, and supposed, for that reason, to have definite power of protect- ing the wearers. Eome seems, by such objects, to foster among her adherents reliance in a kind of ecclesiastical magic, as she does by certain peculiar practises, e. g., the sprinkling of fields with holy water as a sacred insecticide and a "magic manure."

Anabaptists. (Ana [Greek], again, and baptivo [Greek], I baptize.) A name given to those who reject infant baptism and jebaptize such as join their com- munion, maintaining that this Sacra- ment is not valid unless administered by immersion and to persons who are able to give an account of their faith. The Anabaptist sect originated at Zwickau, Saxony, in 1520. Its leaders, by their lawless fanaticism, completely separated themselves from the cause of the Refor- mation and with the subject of adult baptism connected principles destructive of all religious and chil order. The most eminent of its early leaders were Thomas Muenzer, Mark Stuebner, and jSTicholas Storck, who had been disciples of Luther, but, becoming dissatisfied with the moderate character of his Ref- ormation, cast off his authority and at- tempted to bring about more sweeping changes in the reformation of the Church. During Luther's absence from Wittenberg, in 1521, they began to preach their doctrines there. They laid claim to supernatural powers, declared they saw visions, uttered "prophecies/' and gained a large number of proselytes ; for the ferment which the great religi- ous events in Central Europe had pro- duced in the minds of men rendered them impatient of the existing order of things, socially and politically as well as spir- itually. In 1525, incited by the revolu- tionary harangues of Muenzer and his revolutionists, the peasants of Suabia, Thuringia, and Franconia, who had been much oppiessed by their feudal superi- ors, rose in arms and began a sanguinary struggle chiefly for political emancipa- tion. The Anabaptist leaders, having cast their lot with the insurgent peas- antry, became their leaders in battle. After some time of watchful waiting, during which Luther requested the peas- ants to submit to law and order and, after his requests had been refused, he called upon the magistrates to enforce oicler, the allied princes of the emperor, % led by Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, put down the revolution. Muenzer was de-

Anatolia

Ancestor WorvsMp

featecl, captured, the torture applied to him, and ultimately beheaded. In 1(>3«3 some extreme Anabaptists from Holland, led by a baker called Jolm Matthias, or Mattiiiesen, and a tailor, Jolm Bockholcl, or Bockclson, both extremists, seized on the City of Muenster, Westphalia, which had adopted the doctrines of the Reformation, with a view to setting up in it a spiritual kingdom, in which, at least nominally, Christ should reign. The name of Muenster was changed to Mount Zion, and Matthias became its actual king. In a sally against the Bishop j^f Muenster, who 'had laid siege to the city, Matthias lost his life, and the sovereignty and prophetic office de- volved on John Bockhold. Muenster now became a theater of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The intro- duction of polygamy and the neglect of civil order concealed from the infatuated people the avarice and madness of their young tyrant, Bockholcl, under the name of John of Leyden, lived in princely lux- ury and magnificence, sent out specious proclamations against neighboring rul- ers, — against the Pope and Luther, — threatened to destroy with his mob all who differed from him, and finally made himself an object of terror to Ins own subjects by frequent executions, while famine and pestilence raged in the city. On June 24, 1535, the Bishop of Muen- ster reattacked the city by force of arms, and Bockhold and two of liis moat active companions, Knipperdolling and Krech- ting, were tortured to death with red- hot pincers and then hung up in iron cages on St. Lambert's steeple at Muen- ster for the purpose of terrifying all rebels. In the mean time some of the 20 "apostles" who had been sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits of lifs kingdom liad been successful in various near-by cities. Among these Anabaptist prophets the most celebrated were Mel- chior Hoffmann and David Joris.

Anatolia. See Asia* Minor.

Ancestor Worship. Worship of the spirits of deceased parents or forefathers, a widely spread cult, found among the savage and barbaric peoples of Poly- nesia, Melanesia, India* Southern and Western Africa, North and South America. It plays a prominent role in the religious life of China and Japan and among the ancients was practised by the Babylonians and especially by the Romans. The cult is based on the uni- versal belief in the existence of an im- material part of man which leaves the body at death (see Animism}. The de- ceased, furthermore, is believed to have

the same kindly interest in the affairs of the living as when alive and to inter- fere in the course of events, for the wel- fare of the family or clan. He is able to protect his relatives, help them in war, give them success in their under- takings, and therefore demands their continued service, reverence, and sacri- fices; or he may bring diseases, storms, or other misfortunes upon them, if 1m worship, is neglected. The motive, there- fore, which induces survivors to worship their ancestors is not only filial respect and love, but frequently also fear, often a mixture of both. With the ancient Romans ancestor worship was a sort of family religion. Masks or images, em- bodying the manes, Le, the spirits of the deceased, who had become gods of the lower world, were set up in the homes, altars were erected, sacrifices made, and prayers offered to them in the same manner as to the penates, the pro- tecting spirits of the household. The Hindus bring sacrifices to the pitris (pat res], the divine spirits of deceased ancestors, and implore them for assist- ance. In China ancestor worship is universal. Tablets of wood bearing the name and date of birth and death 'of the deceased are found in every home, and incense and paper are daily burned be- fore them. Frequently an entire room is set aside for this purpose, and a rich family will erect a separate building. The oldest son especially is obligated to perform this worship, from which fact comes the great desire for male offspring and the little regard paid to girl babies. Jn the first part of April a general wor- ship of ancestors- is observed with sacri- fices, libations, burning of candles, in- cense, and paper. From China ancestor worship passed to Japan, wheie, too, it became firmly established.

Besides actual worship of the spirits of the deceased there lias been prevalent among many races the custom of supply- ing the dead with things which they en- joyed while alive, under the assumption that they needed them as much in the other world as in the present. I^ood, clothing, utensils, and weapons were placed in the tomb, as was done by the ancient Egyptians. Among some savage races the dead man's wife; servants, and favorite animals were killed or buried alive with their former master. How- ever, as this was done to minister to his needs, not to implore him for help, such practises alone are not ancestor worship in the strict sense.

Associated with ancestor worship is the belief in the possibility of communi- cating with the spirits of the dead and

Anchorites

Ancient Languages

obtaining- their counsel and assistance in times of danger and misfortune through the agency of medicmc-meii, wizards, or seers (see Spiritism). There is also a widely prevalent belief that ancestors are reincarnated in new-born children^ for which see Transmigration. Ancestor worship has in some cases developed into idol worship, and the Roman worship of the manes was the substructure upon which developed the worship of saints in the Roman Catholic Church.

Anchorites, See Hermits.

Ancient Languages. The term em- braces principally classical Latin, Greek, and Hebrew and, as a result of modern researches and excavations, the languages of ancient Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, As- syria, etc. — Latin was the language of the founders of Rome. In the wake of Roman conquests it spread until it be- came the almost iiniversal language of the Western civilized world. Writers of the Golden Age, as Cicero, Caesar, Vir- gil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, etc , exhibit the literary language, Lingua Latino,, in its fullest maturity. The language of the people, into which foreign forms and idioms were subsequently introduced by Goths, Vandals, and Longobards, was called Lingua Itomana Rustica, from which developed the Romance languages: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Rumanian. As a result of the Nor- man-French Conquest also the English language contains many Latin elements. The Latin language was perpetuated, though in a state of deterioration, in the Western Church (Church Latin) and for centuries remained the ecclesiastical and official language of Europe. As a lan- guage, Latin, in general, resembles the English in simplicity and directness of expression, though, unlike the Greek and German languages, it lacks the flexibility and the power of forming compounds. — Greek, like Latin an Indo-G-ermanic lan- guage, originally comprised a number of dialects, often grouped as Ionic, Doric, and Aeolic. The Attic, or the Ionic group, gradually became the chief liter- ary dialect; used by classical writers and taken as norm by grammarians. Classical writers: Homer, Sappho, Pin- dar, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, Aristotle, etc. Fol- lowing the conquests of Alexander, 330 B. C., Greek spread over great parts of Asia, and thus arose the common dialect, Koine, Hellenistic Greek, tinged with local peculiarities (Septuagint and New Testament). The difference between the literary language and the Koine in- , creased, until the latter gradually sup-

planted the foimer. With 800 A. D. the period of modern Greek may be said to have begun. Since the establishment of the Greek kingdom, 1830, there has been a strong movement toward purification of modern Greek and a closer conformity to the ancient idiom. Greek is the oldest classical language of Europe. Its variety of forms and its great power to form new word compounds make it one of the most flexible and most beautiful lan- guages; its literature exerted a domi- nating influence upon the literary types employed by other Euiopean nations. — Hebrew, a Semitic language, was spoken by the Ibuim, as the Israelites were called. The books of the Old Testa- ment, except parts in Daniel and Ezra, were written in this tongue. The Hebrew characters at first very much resembled those of the Phenicians. The present square writing came into vogue after the return of the Jews from exile. The al- phabet contains 22 characters. The an- cient text (k'thibh, the written) con- tained only consonants; the vowels were supplied later by the Masorites, ca. 600 A. D., and were called k'ri (to be read). The chief part of the grammar is the verb, whose seven formations, conjuga- tions, are expressive of various relations. Since the exile, Hebrew ceased to be the current speech of the Jews. In Pales- tine they adopted the Aramaic and out- side of Palestine the language of the people among whom they had settled. But Hebrew maintained its sway as the language of Holy Writ and as the official language of the synagog and was there- fore cultivated both by the learned and the masses. The Hebrew of the Middle Ages and the New Hebrew are modeled entirely after the Biblical type, but are now nowhere used as exclusive means of communication. — Aramaic, a Semitic language spoken by the Arameans north- east of Palestine, was used as a medium of international communication already in the time of the later Assyrian (2 Kings 18, 26) and Chaldean empires and gradually became the vernacular of many nations. During the Babylonian Captivity the Jews also adopted the Ara- maic dialect spoken in Babylon, and por- tions of Ezra (6, 8 — 18; 7, 12 — 26) and of Daniel (2, 4 — 7, 28) were written in Aramaic. At the time of Christ, Aramaic was spoken throughout Palestine and was probably the language which our Lord spoke.

The study of any language is of great cultural value. This is especially true of the study of Latin, Greek, and He- brew becaxise of their determining in- fluence upon modern languages and liter-

Aiulersoii, Lars

Ai&gelolairy

itures. These ancient languages are im- portant to us for the reason thai during the Middle Ages and tlio Information Period theological and scientific works were written in Latin, the New Testa- ment was originally written in Greek, and the Old Testament in Hebrew. Knowledge of these languages, therefore, will facilitate not only the study of many a modern language arid help us to under- stand modern culture, hut will also en- able us to read the Word of God in the language in which it was revealed.

Anderson., Lars, b. about 1480 ; bishop of Strengnaes; chancellor of Sweden since 1523; had confidence *of Gustavus Vasa; aided Olavus and Laurentius IV tri, or Peterson, in the work of the Ref- ormation; translated the New Testament into Swedish; conspired against the king, who ruthlessly interfered with the rights of the Church, and barely escaped death in 1540; died, poor and neglected, in 1552.

Anderson, Maria Erances, nee Hill (1819—1900), wife of professor at Uni- versity of Lewisburg, Pa.; Baptist, pub- lished works in prose; among her hymns: "Our Country's Voice is Plead- ing."

Andreae, Jakob, b. 1528. Studied at Tuebingen; at eighteen preacher at Stuttgart; chancellor of Tuebingen; ac- tive reformer in all Southern Geimany; confessed his faith before King Antony of Navarre at Paris and discussed it with the Patriarch Jeremiah of Constanti- nople; failed to unite the Flacians and Philippists at Zerbst in 1570; preached six sermons on the disputed points; re- vised again and again the basis of the Formula, of Concord; the Church owes the Formula, next to Chemnitz, to him. "Unparted from God/' he died 1590. — His grandson, Johann Valentin, Andreae, b. 1586, studied at Tuebingen; insisted on pure morals as well as pure doctrine; called to Calev in 1620; pioneer in In- ner Mission work; called to Stuttgart in 1G39; labored to educate ministers and to introduce church discipline; d. 1654.

Andreen, Dr. Gustav Albert, educa- tor, college president; b. 1864 in Porter, IncL; educated chiefly at Augustana Col- lege, Rock Island, 111., and Yale; in- structor at Augustana College, 1882 — 84; professor of languages at Bethany Col- lege, Kans.; professor at Yale; presi- dent of Augustana College since 1901 ; author of Det Svenska Spraeket i Ame- vika, Studies in- the G-erman Idyl, His- tory of the Educational Work of the Augustana- By nod.

Angelicals, Order of. An order of Augustinian nuns, founded at Milan about 1530, now extinct for nearly a cen- tury. Every member adopted tlie name "Angelica."

A«n.gellcus, Doctor. See Thomas A (

Angel of the Lord. The special, un- created Angel of the Old Testament, the Son of God as He appeared to the be- lievers of the Old Testament upon vari- ous occasions. The Angel of the Lord, we are told, appeared to Hagar in the wilderness, Gen. 1C, 7 ff.; later again, Gen. 21, 17; in company with two cre- ated angels He visits Abraham in Mamre and also rescues Lot from Sodom, Gen. 18 and 19; He appears to Abraham as h<j is about to sacrifice Isaac, Gen. 22, 11; to Jacob at Bethel, Gen. 31, 11—-13; cf. 28, 10 ft'.; Jacob wrestles with Him at IV- niel, Gen. 32, 24 (cf. HOB. 12, 3—5) ; Ja- cob asks Him to bless the sons of Joseph, Gen. 48, 16; He appears to Moses in the burning bush, Ex. 3; goes before the camp of Israel, Ex. 14, 19; God warns Israel not to provoke Him, Kx. 23, 20 1; is again promised to Israel after they had committed idolatry with the golden calf, Ex. 32, 34; 33, 1—12; leads them to Kadesh, Num. 20, 1C; appears to Ba- laam, Num. 22, 22 ff.; appears to Joshua as the Captain of the Lord's host, Josh. f>, 13— G, 2; conies to Bochim, Judg. 2,

1 — 4-, tells Israel to curse Meroz, Jndg. 5, 23; appears to Gideon, Judg. 0, 11; to Manoali and his wife, Judg. 13, 211.; His name is used in a proverbial expres- sion, 1 Sam. 29, 9; 2 Sam. 14, 17. 20; 19, 27; when David had numbered Is- rael, the Angel of the Lord stretched His hand over Jerusalem to destroy it,

2 Sam. 24, ICff.; 1 Chron. 22, 15—30; He appears to Elijah under the juniper- tree, 1 Kings 19, 5—7; sends Elijah to Ahaziah, 2 Kings 1, 1 — 3; smites 185,000 Assyrians, 2 Kings 19,35; 2 Chron. 32,21; Is. 37, 36; David mentions Him, Ps. 34,7; 35, 5. G; Isaiah calls Him the Angel of God's presence, Is. 63, 9; He appears to Zechariah, who mentions His name, I,s8ff.; 3, 1 ff.; 12, 8; and Malachi calls Him the Messenger, or Angel, of the Covenant, Mai 3, 1.

Angelolatry. That angelolatry, the worshiping of angels, was pi*actised very early is evident from the condemnation voiced in Col. 2, 18. This passage, to- gether with Kev. 22, 8. 9, long kept this unscriptural cult in check. Eusebius, Augustine, and even Pope Gregory the Great reproved it, and the Council of Laodicea called it disguised idolatry. With the increasing veneration of im:

Angels, the Goo«l

23

Angels, tlie Good

iges and saints (gq.v.), the invocation >f angels also gained vogue, was sanc- tioned by the Second Council of Nicea (787), and has since been practised in the Roman and Greek Churches. The Catechism us Romanus (III, 2, 8) says: "That also must carefully be taught in the explanation of this Commandment [the First], that the veneration and in- vocation of the holy angels ... is not contrary to this law. For though the Christians arc said to adore the angels, according to the example of the saints of the Old Testament [!J, they nevertheless do not show them that veneration which they give God." Evidently any cult that lacks Scriptural warrant is man-made and infringes on the worship due to God.

Angels, tlie Good. The word angel literally means a messenger and is so translated Luke 7, 24, etc. It generally stands for the messengers of God, the unseen citizens of heaven, who are con- tinually doing the bidding of the Most High. Ps. 104, 4; Matt. 4, 63 Heb. 2, 7. The "angels of the seven churches" in Revelation are evidently the pastors of these churches. "Angel of the Lord" is an Old Testament term for the Second Person of the Holy Trinity. See article on Angel of the Lord,

According to their nature the angels are creatures, Col. 1, 16, and are mem- bers of the great family of God under the Head, Jesus Christ, Eph. 17 10; 3, 15. Their characteristic is spirituality. Heb. 1, 14. They are personal, conscious, in- telligent beings, who differ from men in the completeness of their spiritual na- ture, which does not require a body in order to constitute a personality. The angels are endowed with knowledge, power, and the ability of free locomotion. They recognize the depth and glory of the divine counsels, but grow in their knowledge of God's plan of salvation as they see it in process of completion. Matt. 24, 3G; 1 Pet. 1, 12; Eph. 3, 10. By reason of their great power — evi- denced in mighty acts of judgment, Gen. 19; 2 Kings 19, 35; Matt. 13, 49. 50; they "excel in strength" Ps. 103, 20. 21 — they are given tremendous titles : Thrones, Principalities, Powers, etc., Rom. 8, 38; Eph, 1,21; 3,10; Col. 2, 10; 1, 16; 1 Pet. 3, 22; 2 Pet. 2, 10. Their power is employed in the preservation of the faithful. Dan. 3,25; Acts 5, 19; 12, 7.

In numbers the angels are so great that the word "hosts" is characteristic of them. They are "many thousands," myriads, millions of them. Deut. 33, 2 ; Dan. 7, 10. As such they were created, since their multiplication by natural in- crease is excluded. Matt. 22, 30,

While some of the angels fell (see article Devil), the rest have been con- firmed in their state of innocency. Theirs is not only an ability not to sin, but an inability to sin, Matt. 18, 10; and they are for this reason called the Holy Ones of God, Ps. 89, 7 ; Luke 9, 26, and elsewhere. The passage Job 4, 18 marks the difference between the absolute holi- ness of God and the sinlessness of the angels. The knowledge of their pres- ence should fill us with holy dread. 1 Cor. 11, 10.

Whenever angels have been made mani- fest to man, it has always been in human form. Gen. 18 and 19; Luke 24, 4; Acts

I, 10, etc. Of what these bodies in which they were clothed for intercourse with man consisted is a question unanswered in Scripture. Whenever they appeared in human form, it was in order to bring a message or perform some service among men as agents of God's provi- dence. The operation of natural forces is sometimes described as fulfilling the will of God under angelic guidance as in the case of pestilence. Ex. 12, 23; Heb.

II, 28; 1 Cor. 10, 10; 2 Sam. 24, 1C. The plagues which, cut off the army of Sennacherib, 2 Kings 19, 35, and which ended the career of Herod, Acts 12, 23, are plainly attributed to the work of an angel. — But by far the most numerous appearances of angels are those con- nected with the scheme of redemption and the sanctification of man. The angels mingled with, and watched over, the family of Abraham. Angelic guid- ance was withheld when the prophetic office began with Samuel, except when needed by the prophets themselves. 1 Kings 19, 5; 2 Kings 6, 17. But dur- ing and after the Babylonian Captivity r angels are again announced to Daniel and Zechariah as watching over the national life of Israel.

In the New Testament age the angels are revealed as ministering spirits to each individual member of Christ. While their visible appearances are unfrequent after the Incarnation, their presence and their aid are referred to familiarly al- most as a thing of course. They watch over Christ's little ones, Matt. 18, 10; they rejoice over penitent sinners, Luke

15, 10; they attend the worship of Chris- tians, 1 Cor. 11, 10; they bear the souls of the redeemed into 'paradise, Luke

16, 22. In all these employments the angels do not act independently, but as the instruments of God and by His com- mand.

Of the angels, several are mentioned by name. Gabriel was the messenger sent to Daniel, to the father of John the.

24

\ iiiiiliilutiouism

l*anU«t, nmi to the mother of <mr TJ(mi 1 Uo nauie means "champion of Gj0d J1 Michael rwho !H like (JoUT), another ot tho^ archangels or angels of hiober lank, IH cieaoribwl in Daniel as havin<* special charge of the Israelites an<} |JJ .hide- UH disputing with Natan about the boay^ot MOHOS. The nature and method of his \va,r against Satan are not re- \ealed to UH. See also under Cherubim and Ncty.

. A devotion repealed bv Roman Catholics tlueo times a day, at morning, noon, and night, \vhiMi the'bells sound three times three strokes, with in- tervals between. It ordinarily consists <>* throe "ITaii Marys!" will! voiaidos JUKI a prayer; in paschal time a hymn to the Virgin (licyiua fV/t) 5a Hnbsti- ttiiott.^ 4\n indulgence of a hundred days IH gained for each recitation, with ' a plenary indulgence once a month.

S, ('Oitrerx-ion of. \Vhen the Annies 1UU{ their confederates, under Ilengmt and ILorsu, conquered TCn«land limning Wiii» 449, thoy almost 'eradi- cated Chriatianity, which had l)een estab- lished several centuries before. But at the end of the next century Kiu,P Kthel- bert of Kent (500— MO) married a Chris- tian princess, Bertha of Paris, who brought with her a Christian chaplain, Liudhard. The first obstacles having thus hoftxi removed, the emissary of Greg- ory the Great, Augustine of Canterbury wa» al)l«, in 5<)<J, to establish Christianity in Kent, whence, in spite of various re- verses, it spread to Northumbria, Wes- BOX, and the, other parts of Enland.

ngland. Belief in, and worship of,

a form of religious belief cur- rent among all non-civilised races and also surviving in many superstitions and ioli<-lore of modern civilixecl peoples. 1 nmitivc man not only believes that lie lias a acmi and that ibis soul ia separ- able from the body, he also attiilmtes souls to all other living beings, animals ana plants, an well as to inanimate ob- jects, such as tke heavenly bodies, ?Pring«, racks, tools, weapons, etc. There is also found a wide-spread belief in spir- itual beings that are, independent of

(| most of whom are malevolent,

illness and misfortune. The life of such peoples ia filled with dread at those superhuman forces, and tlielr cult generally does not consist in worship, but in sorcery and magic, in- tended to subdue the spirits. Belief that an independent Hpirit may enter a l object and exert its influence

it leads to fetishism (q.v.). Be- separable human souls and their

complete departuie from the body at death and subsequent intervention in the affairs of the living loads to ancestor worship ((/. P.) and spiritism (q.v.). While Scripture, Rom. 1, 18— -25, declares that the heathen animistic and poly- theistic conceptions-! are due to a per- verted view of God's manifestations in nature, evolution intic science of religion assumes that animism is the lowest, or one of the lowest, stages in the upward development of religion. The phenomena of sleep, dreams, tranoo, and death con- vinced primitive man that he possessed a soul, separable from the body. He then attributed similar souls to animals, plants, and inanimate objects and finally believed in spirits which are entirely dis- embodied. Among the more civilized peoples some of UIO.HO spirits eventually developed into gods (polytheism, </.'«.). AiimMlationisni. According to this teaching the unrighteous pass out of ex- istence utterly immediately after death, or when they have suffered for a time, in licll, cither in expiation of their guilt or during a period of final probation. The origin of such teachings is to bo found in the natural horror which men feel when confronted with the idea of eternal punishment. That the Church in eveiy ago has believed and taught the. doctrine of eternal punishment is due to the fact that we must either believe it 01 else renounce the authority of the Bible, [f words ca.u tcacli the doctrine, it ia taught in the Bible. Proof-texts are al- most innumerable. Jesus- sets forth this doctrine in unmistakable terms. He con- cludes His discourse on the Last Judg- ment: "And these shall go away into eternal punishment, Imt the righteous into life oteinal." Matt. 25, 4(5. It is ab- surd to argue that the adjective aiowios (eternal) has one sense in the first clause and a different sense in the second clause. "Their woim dietli not, and the lire is not quenched," Mark 0, 44, 40. 48, Cer- tainly no temporary punishment could justify such language. Jesus used fig- ures denoting fixedness, permanency. There are perverse men who welcome any scrap of evidence that there IB no after-destiny. It would be something like a bold challenge and an invitation to continue in sin if men could believe that they were to end their career in a state 'of eternal forgetfulnesa of all their trespasses and blasphemies. But what a defeat of justice it would be should a lifelong- despiser of grace be able in the end to seek his bed and sleep forever! Assuredly it would not be judicial punishment for a desperately wicked man just to be no more. Eternal

An Helm of Canterbury

25

Anthropomorphism

justice* cannot allow such an easy get-off for a hardened lawbreaker and criminal.

Among the arguments against annihi- lationisxu the following are firmly grounded in Scripture: 1) The different degrees of punishment which the wicked will suller according to their works proves that it does not consist in annihi- lation, which admits of no degrees. 2) When God threatens the wicked with recompensing tribulation and taking ven- geance in llaming fire, 2 Thess. 1? does this mean that God threatens to put an end to their misery? 3) Moreover, this destruction is not described as the con- clusion of a succession of torments, but as taking place immediately after the Last Judgment. 4) Everlasting destruc- tion from the presence of the Lord can- not mean annihilation. According to Matt. 25, 41 the punishment of the wicked will be the same as that of Satan, But the punishment of wicked angels consists, not in annihilation, but torment. Com- pare also Rev. 20, 14; 21, 8. See also Punishment, Eternal.

Anselm of Canterbury. Eminent English prelate, called the father of me- dieval Scholasticism; b. at Aosta, Pied- mont, 1033, d. at Canterbury, England, 1100. Son of wealthy parents, well edu- cated, became monk "in 1000, succeeding Lanfranc of Bee in Normandy as prior in 1003 and advancing to the post of abbot in 1078; became archbishop of (Janterbmy, England, aftet the death of Lanfranc, although he was prevented from taking over the office till 1093. Had many difficulties with the king of England over rights and privileges, a compromise being effected in 1107. In character he was humble, kind of heart, and charitable in judgment; had marked success as teacher, and tlie common people loved Mm; his most celebrated writing Our Deus Homo (Why God Be- came Man ) .

Ansgar (Anskar). Apostle of Scan- dinavia and first archbishop of Ham- burg; b. near Corbie, France, ca. 801; d. at Bremen, Germany, 865. Educated at a monastery, lie made rapid progress and in 822 was sent as teacher and preacher to Westphalia. Pour years later, when King Harold of Denmark asked for men to evangelize his country, Ansgar was among those chosen for the task. When he was obliged to abandon his work at the death of Autbert and the downfall of Harold, he was sent to Swe- den at the solicitation of an embassy asking for missionaries and established Christianity in that country, returning in 831 to report to tiie emperor. Ansgar was now given the bishopric of Hamburg

with the right to send missionaries into all the northern lands and to consecrate bishops for them. He tried to get a firmer foothold in Denmark, especially after 848, when he succeeded in getting King Haarik to recognize Christianity as a tolerated religion. His success in his own diocese was most marked, and he was deeply venerated by all who came in contact with him. He is commonly known as the Apostle of Denmark and Sweden, or of Scandinavia.

Anstice, Joseph, 1808 — 1836, edu- cated at Oxford; professor at King's College, London; author of several prize poems; wrote: "Lord, in Thy Kingdom There Shall Be JSTo Aliens from Each Other/' and others.

Anthem. A song, whose words are usually taken from the Bible and set to music, especially for the use of choirs, the anthem differing in this feature from the hymn, which is more properly used by the congregation as such.

Antliony, St. The father of Chris- tian monasticism ; b. ca. 251 in Egypt; d. 356. Said to have lived as a hermit for eighty yeais. He organized hermit colonies in which monks lived separately, but met for religious services. Anthony left no written rule.

Anthropology. That part of dog- matics, or doctrinal theology, which re- lates to man according to his creation, his essential parts, his fall, and his sub- sequent sinfulness

Anthropomorphism. The Scriptural mode of speech by which the possession of human senses, limbs, and organs is at- tributed to God. God is spoken of as having a face, eyes, ears, a nose, a heart. References are made to God's arm, hand, finger, etc. Gen. 3, 8; 4, 16; 6, 11 5 Ex. 33,12; Ps. 11,4; 139,16; 10,17; 34,16; Ts.22,14; Ps. 18, 8; Ex. 6,6; Is. 52, 10;

02, 8; Jer, 27, 5; Ex. 75 4; 13, 3; Ps.

03, 9; 95, 4; Luke 11, 20; Jer. 31, 20. According to the consonant teaching of Scripture, God is not composed of a ma- terial and an immaterial element, as we are, consisting of body and soul; but is simply spirit, complete in His spiritual nature. When the Bible speaks of God as possessing human parts or affections, the purpose is to convey to the human mind some notion of the ways of God in His universe, especially with mankind.

The term anthropomorphism (anthro- popathism, q. v. ) is also applied to the heretical teaching which attributes to God an actual body and human emotions. The chief offenders in this respect are to-day the Latter-day Saints (Mormons). Orson Pratt, one of the early Mormon

Antlolirlal

writers, doc la rod: "The Father is a jun- ior ial being. The substance of win oh Tic is composed is wholly material." Like descriptions were applied by him to the Son and the Holy Spirit. Brigliam Young declared of God: "tie created man as we create our children; for there is no other process of creation." That God is a man, with human parts and passions, is official Mormon doctrine. B. IT. Roberts goes so far as to say "that man is the oilspring of Deity, not in any mystical sense, but actually; that man has not only a Father in heaven, but a mother also.1'

Antliropomorphites. Men who be- lieve and teach that the descriptions of God found in Scriptures ascribing to Tlnn the possession of a human body and members, together with all the other human organs, human attributes, and human passions, are to be taken liter- ally. This view is not tenable in the light of God's clear revelation of Him- self as a spirit; descriptions of this kind are clearly intended to facilitate man's conception of God, but do not reveal His true essence, except by analogy. See also Audio/iis.

Anthropopathism. The attributing of human emotions, passions, suffering, and attitudes to God, by which the Bible accommodates itself to human thinking. This idea must not be applied to the essence of God. See also Anthropomor- phism and AnthropomorpMles.

Antichrist. In a general sense, all false teachers, 1 John 2, 18; 4, 3; for all such as teach a different gospel than that which is revealed and taught in Scripture are rebels, who place them- .selves in opposition to Christ and try to usurp His place. But in addition to these many antichrists there is one Anti- christ in a special and specific sense, namely, the one who is described at length in Dan. 7; 11, 31—45; Rev. 10; 13; 17; 18; but particularly in 2 Thess. 2, 3— -12. That there is an Antichrist in this npccial sense is clearly shown in 1 John 2, 18, where the one great adver- sary of Christ and the true Church is distinguished from the many antichrists : uYe have heard that Antichrist shall come, and even now are there many anti- christs." In addition to the many false teachers about whom John was con- strained to complain, and who denied the divinity of Christ, there was one great deceiver to be expected, in whom the en- mity against Christ would reach its highlit development. The special dis- Ungtiisliing Gliaracteristics of Antichrist are given as follows: 1) His habitation,

or taboinaoie, botwoon two sous, Dan. 11,45, and on seven hilln, Rev. 17, 0 — 18. 2) The time of his appearance, soon after the period of tho apostles, 3 John 2, 18; 2 Thess. 2, t*>. 7, and his contin- uance till the second coming of the Lord, 2 Thess. 2, 8. The pride and wickedness of the mystery of iniquity was already at work before the end of the first cen- tury, but its development was hindered by the power of the empire and by the person of its ruler ("what withholcleth," "he who now letteth" rr hindereth ) , so that Antichrist could not presume upon his full power until the might of the Roman Empire was on the wane. 3) The person of Antichrist, not indeed Satan himself, but by the working of Satan with all power and signs and lying won- ders. 2 Thess. 2, 0. It is not an indi- vidual person who is here referred to, but a collective person, one who repre- sents or personifies a power. Cp. 1 John 2, 18. 22; 4, 8; 2 John 7. 4) The es- sence of Antichrist's person and position described with the words "falling away" (apostasy), "that man of sin," "the son of perdition." The reference is to the falling away from the true Christian re- ligion, for the entire connection indi- cates that the apostle is speaking of reli- gious matters, not of social or political. The expression of Antichrist in found in signs and lying wonders and with all deceivablencss of unrighteousness, and they who follow him have not received the love of the truth, but they are caught in the meshes of a strong delusion, that they believe a lie. 5) The place of Anti- christ is found in tho very temple of God, in the Christian Church in its ex- ternal or visible form. If a heathen temple were meant, the Antichrist would hardly be associated with the mystery of iniquity, since his wickedness would be evident to all from the outset, C) The manner in which he conducts himself, namely, in tMs, that he opposes and exalts himself above all that is called God, so that he as God sittoth in the temple of God, showing himself that he is God, holding his position in the midst of the Christian Church and assuming an authority to which he has no right. He exalts himself 'above all those to whom God has given certain functions as His representatives on earth, that is, the government and the estate of parents. — Who is this Antichrist? If we take all these individual attributes and char- acteristics together, the picture in its entirety affords a full and adequate de- scription of Romanism, with the Pope of Rome as its head and representative, the apotheosis of wickedness in high places.

Antichrist

27

Aiitilegomena.

Popery represents the most complete fall- ing away from the essence of the Chris- tian religion. The chief and fundamen- tal doctrine of the Bible, namely, that a man is justified entirely and alone hy faith in Christ Jesus, has been officially condemned and anathematized by the Ro- man Church (Resolutions of the Council of Trent, Sess.VI, can. 11. 12. 20), and the entire machinery of the Roman Church is directed against this doctrine. This is truly the most extreme form of apostasy from the Christian religion, and the personal representative of the Roman Church, the Pope at Rome, is truly the greatest adversary of Christ and of His Church. As certainly as the Christian Church consists of people who, by the grace of God, believe that they are jus- tified and saved without their own works, by the mercy of God in Jesus Christ alone, so certainly the Pope and his Church pronounce the curse upon all who so believe and teach. The very chil- dren within the Roman Church, who have become members of the Christian Church by baptism, the Pope leads astray from Christ by the subversion of this fundamental doctrine of the Bible. Moreover, popery is not outside the Church, but in its very midst, because it has Christians in its organization, particularly the children who have been baptized, and then also such adults as rely upon the merits of Christ alone, in spite of the many and continued at- tempts to mislead them. And so far as the position of popery in the world is concerned, the Pope demands absolute obedience to himself and his decrees. He changes the words and commands of God arbitrarily; he presumes to judge all, but to be judged of none,* he has even claimed infallibility for himself. In short, the entire picture of Antichrist, as drawn in the Bible, agrees in every particular with the Roman Church with its official head, the Pope at Rome. — The Lutheran Confessions, therefore, do not hesitate to declare frequently, and consistently, that the Pope is the true Antichrist. This is shown on the basis of his prohibition of marriage, of the invocation of saints taught in the Roman Church, of the abuse of the mass, and other false and pernicious doctrines and practises. "This teaching shows force- fully that the Pope is the very Antichrist (esse ipsum verum antichristum) , who has exalted himself against Christ, be- cause he will not permit Christians to be saved without his power, which, never- theless, is nothing, and is neither or- dained nor commanded by God. This is properly speaking, to exalt himself above

all that is called God, as Paul says, 2 Thess. 2, 4. Even the Turks and the Tartars, great enemies of Christians as they are, do not do this, but they allow whoever wishes to believe in Christ, and take bodily tribute and obedience from Christians. The Pope, however^ pro- hibits this faith, saying that to be saved a person must obey him. This we are unwilling to do, even though on this account we must die in God's name. This all proceeds from the fact that the Pope has wished to be called the supreme head of the Christian Church by divine right. Accordingly he had to make him- self equal and superior to Christ, and had to cause himself to be proclaimed the head and then the lord of the Church, and finally of the whole world, and simply God on earth, until he had dared to issue commands even to the angels in heaven." (Cone. Trigl.,435.) "Now it is manifest that the Roman pontiffs, with their adherents, defend (and practise) godless doctrines and godless services. And the marks (all the vices) of Anti- christ plainly agree with the kingdom of the Pope and his adherents. For Paul, 2 Ep. 2, 3, in describing to the Thessa- lonians Antichrist, calls him an adver- sary of Christ, who opposeth and ex- alteth himself above all that is called God. . . . He speaks therefore of one ruling in the Church, and not of heathen kings, and he calls this one the adver- sary of Christ, because he will devise doctrine conflicting with the Gospel, and will assume to himself divine authority." (L. c.} 515.) "This being the case, all Christians ought to beware of becoming partakers of the godless doctrine, blas- phemies, and unjust cruelty of the Pope. On this account they ought to desert and execrate the Pope with his adherents as the kingdom of Antichrist; just as Christ has commanded Matt. 7, 15." (L. c., 517.) In this connection one ought to study the entire tract Of the Power and Primacy of the Pope, which is appended to the Smalcald Articles of the Lutheran Confessions, Cone. Trigl,, 503—527.

Antilegomena. Literally, "spoken against, questioned by some," certain books of the New Testament concerning which there was no unanimity, or at least some degree of uncertainty in the early Church with regard to their canon- icity (q. v.). They are distinguished from homologoumena, or universally ac- cepted books. Due to the fact that cer- tain false teachers and other unauthor- ized persons tried to have their writings introduced into the Christian congrega- tions (cp. 2 Thess. 2, 2; Luke 1, 1—3),

A nil Hew

28

it, was necessary thai the Christians watched with the greatest care, lest false gospels or letteis be acknowledged, espe- cially by being ascribed to true apostles or disciples of these apostles. It was due chiefly to this special vigilance that the following books were not accepted by the Church everywhere before the latter part of the fourth century: James, Judo, 12 and 3 John, 2 Peter, Hebrews, and the Apocalypse. This was due partly to conditions under which the writings went out, partly to a degiec of uncertainty concerning their authorship. Thus the author of Hebrews is not defi- nitely known; the identity of the James who is the author of the letter was not altogether certain, and the content of the letter was misunderstood; 2 and 3 John are addressed to private persons and were not made accessible to larger circles ; 2 Peter was most likely written shortly before the death of the author and had no definite addressees; Jncle is very short and has a very circumscribed message; and the Apocalypse was under suspicion on account of its nature. Over against these objections it is to be noted that all of these books are mentioned at a very early date, some of them are re- ferred to as early as the beginning of the second century as apostolic writings, and all of them were finally accepted by the Church in the course of the fourth century. See also Carthage, Canon of/ Cation of Ifippo R,eg%us, While doubts have been expressed regarding the one or the other of these books even by orthodox Lutheran teachers, it may be said that, in almost every case, the clear apostolic doctrine, the depth of the ad- monitions and of the entire presentation,, and the high prophetic insight into events of the future almost compel one to acknowledge them. Most of the ob- jections voiced in recent centuries have been satisfactorily met by earnest search- ers after the truth.

Antilles. A name given to two groups of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Vir- tually all the West India Islands ex- cept the Bahamas are included. The Creator Antilles (see Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Porto Rico) have a population of about 6,700,000. The Lesser Antilles (the Virgin Islands, the Caribbee Islands, Barbados, the South America Islands) have a population of 1,307,000. Great Britain, France, Holland, and the United States are represented in this group. The colored race predominates in the Antilles. In the Lesser Antilles, mis- sion-work is carried on by the Apostolic Holiness Union, the Presbyteiian Church in Canada, the National Baptist Conven-

tion, the African M. H3. Church, the Christian Missions in Many Lands, the United Free Church of Scotland, the So- ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary So- ciety, the Moravian Church, the Baptist Church in Trinidad? Total communi- cants, 30,000.

Antinomian Controversy. Begun in 1527 by MFelanchthoirs urging the (jaw to prevent the abuse of free grace, Agri- cola of Eislebeu holding the Law bad no place at all in the Church; the knowl- edge of sin and contrition to be wrought, not by the Law, but by the Gospel. Lu- ther made peace between the two. Pro- fesHor at Wittenberg in 15UO through Luther's influence, Agricola spread his error in sermons and these to Branden- burg, Frankfurt, and especially in Frei- berg, through Jacob Schenk. Luther stopped him from lecturing and, printing, Agiicola recanted and was reconciled in 1538. But he kept on in his evil course, and Luther repeatedly wrote Against the AntiiMm,ia,n(i, "these, diRputations rank- ing among the very bent of hia writings.1' Agricola attacked Luther and escaped trial by breaking his parole and tleeing to Berlin, where he again recanted, in 1541, and again kept on spreading his error.

In the Second Antiuomistic Contro- versy the main IHHUC was the Third Use of the Law. Poach, Otto, and others de- nied that, with respect to good works, the Law was of any service whatever to Christiana. TliewoH such as these were defended : "The Law does not teach good works. Kvangelical preachers are to preach the Gospel only and no Law." ( Concordia, Triglo I tat 1 ntrod. ) — F inally, following Melanchthon, the PhilippiatH taught: "The Gospel alone in expressly and particularly, truly and properly, a preaching and a voice of repentance, or conversion,'1 revealing the baseness of sin (Paul Crell), which is exactly what the Arch- Antinomian Agricola had said.

The Formula of Concord settled the matter by recognizing the triple use of the Law — 1 ) for outward decency, 2 ) for revealing* sin, 3) for the rule of life to the regenerate, who need it on account of their Old Adam. These controversies served to bring out with yet greater clearness the distinction between the Law and the Gospel, justification and sancti- fication,

AiLtioch, School of Interpretation and Doctrine. The Antiochian school of the- ology represents a type of exegesis in marked contrast to the school of Alex- andria. "While the Alexandrians ex- hibited a speculative-intuitive tendency,

inclining to mysticism, a calm intellec- tual tendency, determined by logical reasoning, predominated with the An- tiochians. While the former adhered closely to the Platonic philosophy, . . . the Antiochians were devoted to the Aristotelian school, whose keen dialectic was thoroughly congenial to their spirit." ( Hergenroether. ) Accordingly, in dis- tinction from the allegorizing method of the Origenists, the school of Antioch insisted on the grammatico-historical method of exegesis and accepted the lit- eral sense of the Scriptures. The Alex- andrians stressed the mysterious and ultrarational elements in Christianity, while the Antiochians endeavored to show that the teachings of Christianity were consonant with human reason, with- out, however, denying their supernatural character. That this attempt might easily lead to rationalism is apparent; but details must he sought elsewhere. The Antiochian school, though originat- ing in the third century, reached its height under Diodorns, bishop of Tarsus (379 — 394), and Theodore, bishop of Mopsvestia (393—428).

Antiphon. A response, or versicle, sung before a psalm, a lesson, or a col- lect, the pastor intoning the versicle by chanting the first line and the congre- gation answering by chanting its second half.

Antiphonary. A book of antiphons.

Anti-Saloon League of America. Organized at Washington, D. C., Decem- ber 18, 1895. It opposes the general use of intoxicating liquors. Headquarters, Wester ville, 0.

Antitrinitarlanism. See Unitarian* ism.

Apocrypha. Literally, "hidden, se- cret," but very early associated with the notion of "spurious" ; a number of books which by name and contents pretend to be canonical, but which have been denied a place in the canon on account of their dubious origin and contents. The Roman Church, indeed, accepts fourteen Old Tes- tament apocrypha, namely, Judith, Tobit, 3 and 4 Esdras, certain parts of the Greek Book of Esther, the Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (Jesus Siracli), Baruch, Song of the Three Children, His- tory of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasseh, Prayer of Azariah, and 1 and 2 Maccabees, but this in the face of all sound critical and historical evidence. The Protestant Church has consistently opposed these books, also on doctrinal grounds. — The apocrypha of the New Testament may, in general, be said to be on a much lower level than

those of the Old Testament. Many of them have introduced and supported her- esies in the Church; others are so ob- viously composed of fables and legends as to be almost fantastical, if not blas- phemous, in many sections. This is par- ticularly true of the writings which deal with the birth, girlhood, and death of Mary, and with the birth and childhood and with the suffering and death of our Savior. Many of these stories and leg- ends have found their way into the lit- erature of the Roman Church and are included in some of their service books. The New Testament apocrypha may be divided into four groups: Gospels, Acts, Epistles, and Apocalypses. Among the most noteworthy false gospels are the Protevangelium of James, dealing chiefly with the history of Mary and the birth of Jesus, the Gospel of Pseudo -Matthew, the Gospel of the Nativity of Mary, with a similar content, the History of Joseph the Carpenter, the Gospel of Thomas, also concerned with the infancy of our Lord, the Arabic Gospel of the Infancy, and the Gospel of Nicodemus, which tries to supplement the passion story. Among the false Acts we have: those of Peter and Paul, of Paul and Thecla, of Bar- nabas, of Philip, of Andrew and Mat- thew, of Thomas, and the Passion of John, all of them trying to supplement the sacred account, but of value only in their portrayal of their own times. Among the Apocryphal Epistles we might mention : Letters attributed to our Lord, especially that addressed to Abgarus of Edessa, letters from Peter to James, the Apocryphal Letters to the Laodiceans and to the Corinthians; and the alleged correspondence between Seneca and Paul. Of the Apocryphal Apocalypses that of Peter is the most important, but there are others ascribed to Paul, John, Bar- tholomew, Thomas, Stephen, the Virgin Mary, and others of minor interest. The texts or fragments of texts of only a few are extant. The whole class of apocry- phal writings is evidently not genuine in their alleged authorship, much less ca- nonical in nature.

Apocrypha, Roman Doctrine. The Council of Trent (Sess. IV) gives a list of the books which are to be received "as sacred and canonical" by the Roman Church. This list, for the New Testa- ment, contains the same books as are ac- cepted by Protestants. Under its doc- trine of the value of tradition (q. v.) the Roman Church, indeed, reserves to itself the right of claiming for any of the Apoc- rypha of the New Testament an author- ity equal to that of the Scriptures, but it gives none of them a place in the canon.

A iK

30

A different course is pursued with refer- ence to the Old Testament. Neither Je- sus nor the apostles gave a list of tlie Old Testament books that are to be con- sidered canonical, but they tacitly indi- cated them; for when "the Law and the prophets" or "the Law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms1' (Luke 24, 44) were spoken of, the hearers would refer such expressions to the canon then ac- cepted in Palestine, which contained the books now received by Protestants. Be- sides these, the Council of Trent lists the books of Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, 1. and 2, Maccabees, — Esther and Daniel also containing apocryphal additions. Rome calls these books deuterocancmieal and treats them as of equal authority with the others. The, Palestinian Jews of Christ's time rejected them as apocry- phal, and none of them are anywhere quoted in the New Testament.

Apollinarianism, the doctrine of Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He impaired the humanity of Christ by denying him a rational soul (nous, pneuma), this being supplied by the Logos.

Apocatastasis ( "restoration" ) . The term is used in Acts 3, 21 in the combi- nation "restoration of all things," mean- ing the fulfilment of all prophecies, Ori- gen and, after him, many sectarians of ancient and modern times have inter- preted this passage to mean that at one time literally all things Would be re- stored to their state of primeval inno- cence; that evil itself, sin, hell, and Satan, would be reconciled with God through Christ. The doctrine has been peculiar to Unitarians and Universalists. A distinct sect, the Hestoratioriists, ex- isted in Massachusetts about 1830, but appears to have become extinct. The Kestorationist teaching is that man's probation is not confined to this life; that, as Christ died for all, all will even- tually be saved. This interpretation of the Apocatastasis plainly contradicts the Scripture doctrine regarding the future life. A comparison with Bom. 8, 21 and Rev. 21 seems to show that the new heaven and earth will witness a restora- tion of certain things lost by the Fall. That this restoration includes the anni- hilation of evil and the restoration of fallen angels and of men under judgment in no wise follows from these and other Scriptural references to a restoration at the end of time.

Apollonius Tyaueus (3 B.C. to 96 A. D. ) , Neo-Pythagorean soothsayer and magician. His biography, written by

Philostratus about 20 A. D., is an ideal- izing romance with the polemical aim, it would seem, of denying the exclusive claims of Christianity. Apollonius is pictured as a great worker of miracles, who cast out demons, possessed the knowledge of ail languages, raised the dead; in fine, as a pagan Messiah.

Apologetics. That branch of theology which has for its object the defense of Christianity against its enemies; some- times distinguished from apology (the actual defense of Christianity) as the science teaching the right method of apology. The terms arc used inter- changeably to-day.

There has been much discussion into which major department of theology apologetics belongs. Tt has been vari- ously classified with Biblical criticism, dogmatics, and practical theology. Apol- ogetics is treated by English writers under the name Evidences of Chris- tianity.

The historical method of apologetics en- deavors to vindicate Christianity 1) by showing the genuineness of the sacred books; 2) by proving the historicity of Biblical events. The evidences brought in support of these points are either ex- ternal (demonstrating the authenticity and credibility of the Scriptures, and the argument from miracles and prophecy) ; the internal evidences (derived from the blessed effects of Christian teaching, from the character of Christ, and from the inherent power of the Holy Scripture) ; and the collateral evidences drawn from the more general effects of Christianity on human society and civilization. The philosophical method views Christianity as an undeniable fact, which needs for its explanation nothing else than the divine agencies which it claims : an in- spired Bible, miracles, and prophecy.

The antiquity of the Old and New Tes- tament Scriptures cannot be denied, and by testimony more accurate and detailed than we possess with regard to any other ancient records these books can be shown to be substantially the same now as when originally written. Their credibility is fairly proved by the character of the writers themselves and by the entire ab- sence of motive for fiction. Their facts are related with the greatest simplicity and are left to speak for themselves. They include incidents which would nec- essarily expose them to contempt among the prejudiced and unconverted. The main thesis of the New Testament — the resurrection of a dead man and his as- cension into the abode of the upper world — was open to a thousand objec- tions. Yet the testimony of these men,

Apoio&iats

31

Apostles' Creed

invol\ing so many and stupendous mh- acles, conquered the "Roman world.

Nowhere except in the Scriptures have we a perfect system of morals. Nor are its injunctions feeble; they are strictly law. And when man's inability to fulfil this Law has been proved, a way of es- cape is pointed out through the doctrine of the Atonement which has no parallel in all the world's religions. And this religion, which accepted no compromise and admitted of no comprehension, had to overcome every existing heathen mythology and object of worship. Thus the evidence of a superhuman origin of Christianity is in its cumulative effect overwhelming.

For the historical line of proof modern discoveries have supplied an important chapter. From the decipherment of Egyptian and Babylonian records and the discoveries of archeology much evi- dence has been adduced corroborating the Scriptural narratives. The detailed discussion of these discoveries does not fall within the scope of this cyclopedia.

Apologists (defenders) are writers who vindicated the truths of Christianity against the charges and calumnies of pagans and Jews. Beginning in the days of Hadrian, apologetic literature in- creased in volume until the formal recog- nition of Christianity by Constantino. Noted apologists are Quadratus, bishop of Athens, Aristides, Melito of Sardes, Claudius Apollinaris, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and others.

Apology. See Augsburg Confession.

Apostles' Creed. The Apostles' Creed, often simply called "the Creed1' because of its general use for catechetical and liturgical purposes, is the first of the three ecumenical symbols and the fun- damental confession of the Christian Church. As its name indicates, its authorship has been ascribed to the apostles themselves. In fact, from the days of Kufinus, bishop of Aquileia (d. 410), down to the period of the Ref- ormation this tradition was generally ac- cepted. The apostles, it was believed, compiled it as a summary of Christian doctrine either on the day of Pentecost or before their departure from Jerusa- lem. It was even held that each of the Twelve severally contributed a distinct portion, so that the Creed would be a mosaiolike production, mechanically pieced together. Peter was supposed to have made the beginning with: "I be- lieve in God the Father . . . heaven and earth," Andrew (or John) continuing with: "And in Jesus Christ . . . our Lord/' and similarly the other apostles.

The joint apostolic authorship, though without the arbitrary distribution of parts just referied to, was defended by Kufinus, who pointed to the word avp,- ftoJiov, which he mistranslates collatio (quod plures in unum conferunt, because a number of writers contribute to the same subject), as if equivalent to avfi- poktf, contribution, in confirmation of his view. The CateoJiismus Romanus still maintains the validity of this tradition. The apostolic origin of the Creed was first impugned by the humanist Lauren- tius Valla, then by Erasmus. Calvin cautiously left the question sub iudice (undecided), maintaining that the Creed was either received ab ore apostolorum or faithfully gathered ex eoruin scriptis. Luther, too, took a neutral position. And though in more recent times the older view has found some vigorous advocates, while Lessing and especially the Danish bishop G-rundtvig (d. 1872) went so far as to trace the Creed directly to Christ Himself, no Protestant historian of the present day would venture to defend the apostolic authorship. Indeed, the argu- ments against the latter are unanswer- able: 1) If the apostles had drawn up such a concise and comprehensive for- mula, one would reasonably expect to find it incorporated in the New Testa- ment canon; at least the important fact of the composition would be clearly stated. 2) The silence of all ante-Nieene literature constitutes eloquent negative testimony against the old tradition, 3) The various rules of faith (regulae fidei) in the ante-Nicene churches would become inexplicable if there had been from the first an authoritative apostolic formula; for this none would have dared to alter. On the other hand, though the present text of the Creed, taken as a whole, is of late origin, as we shall see, its most important parts and phrases, taken separately, are found very early m the literature of the Church. Igna- tius, at the beginning of the second cen- tury, says of Christ that "He was born of the Virgin Mary," "suffered under Pontius Pilate," "was crucified and died," and "was raised from the dead." "The rule of faith," referred to above, also called "the rule of truth," "the apostolic preaching," etc., though vary- ing in outward form, sometimes longer or shorter, declarative or interrogative, was simply the Apostles' Creed in the making. Such regulae fidei are men- tioned by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, and others. Thus Tertullian mentions as the regula fidei , . . immoHlis and wreformabiUs of the" Church, credendi scilicet in unicum Deum omnipotent em,

Apostles1

tnmuli (Ircatorctti) el F-iliuni CIKS Jcsnw, Ohnstwm, ndiK.m- ex niiginc Maria, oni.ci- fioctim sub Pontio Pilato, tertia die te- ftuscitatum a mot tuts, rcceplum in coehs, ficdenteni nwio Q>d drcetram Pairis, ven- tutum i'udieare viros et mortuos, winch, turned into English, is as follows: "The rule of faith, fixed and unchangeable, is belief in one God Almighty, the Creator of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, who was born of the Virgin Mary, crucified under Pontius Pilate, uiised on the third day from the dead, received into heaven, is now sitting at the right hand of the Father, and shall come to judge the quick and the dead." In an- other place he adds that faith in Spiii- tum Sanctum, Paracletum, etc., i. e,, the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, etc , consti- tutes a part of the regula fidei of the Church.

How did this "rule of faith" arise? Tt was not, of course, like the Nicene and later symbols, drawn up in a statutory way OH a particular occasion to meet a particular emergency in the Church. Tt can be traced neither to an individual axithor, nor to a synodioal assembly. It was rather a spontaneous growth, spring- ing from the palpitating life and the practical needs of the early Church. It grew out of the necessity of a shoit sum- mary of faith for purposes of catechetical induction and as a public confession of candidates for Holy Baptism. Its nu- cleus is doubtless found in the confession of Peter (Matt. 16, 10) and in the bap- tismal formula, which suggested the trinitarian ai rangement. The Oiiental forms were generally longer and more philosophical than the Western. Among these that of the church of Home even- tually gained general acceptance and be- came known as the Apostles' Creed. It appears in two forms, an earlier and a later. The former is known to us from the Latin text of Ruftnus (390), who in- dicates the additions to the Creed of Aquileia as compared with the Roman symbol (so that the words of the latter can be easily inferred) and from the Greek text of Marcellus of Ancyra (ca. 340). This is generally supposed to be the original, since Greek was the prevailing language of the Roman Church down to the third century. It possibly goes back to the second century. On account of the tfovoyevtfg ( only -begotten ) it is plausibly inferred that the Creed arose among the Johannean circles of Asia Minor. The longer Roman symbol, or our present re- ceived text, contains various clauses which are absent from the older form, e.g., "descended * into hell" (Hades), "catholic*5 in the article on the Church,

uthe communion of saints,'1 and uthe life everlasting.'1 Tliese additions, hovvc\er, were not newly formulated, but had been parts of various local creeds, from which they were incoiporated into the author- ized Roman symbol. In this its final form the Apostles' Cieed does not ap- pear before the sixth or seventh century.

As to the value and importance of the Apostles1 Creed, little need be said. It remains the most admirable summary of Christian doctrine ever made in so brief a compass. "Christian tiuth," says Lu- ther, "could not possibly be put into a shorter and clearer statement." It is not the reasoned product of a theological school, but the spontaneous expression of a living faith. It is edifying to the child and to the professional theologian. Postapostolic in origin, it is thoroughly apostolic in matter and substance. All modern attacks upon tins venerable Creed resolve themselves into attacks upon the New Testament itseii.

Apostolic Constitutions (and (Jaw* ons). An ancient collection of ecclesias- tical precepts, ostensibly regulations for the organization and government of the Church put out by the apostles them- selves. Some of the older sections may go back to the fourth century and even beyond, but the present form* goes back to about the eighth eentmy. There ate eight books of the ('onatitutionH and eighty-live (Janonti, the latter going back to a greater antiquity than the Oo>nsU' tuiio'iis and being possibly based upon traditions handed down from the early second century. The collection is inter- esting not only on account of the regula- tions it contains, but especially for the list of canonical books which it olfers.

Apostolic Delegate. A papal repre- sentative, sent to countries which do not maintain diplomatic relations with the Roman See. The most important apos- tolic delegation is that at Washington, established in 1893, See Legat.es; Nwtieio.

Apostolic Fathers (Aposlolioi, ac- cording to Tertullian) are the post- apostolic teachers of the Church, some of whom had enjoyed personal inter- course with the apostles. To them be- long Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Her- mas, Papias, Poly carp, and the unknown authors of the Epistle to Biognetus and of the Didache.

Apostolic Succession. By this term is understood the claim made by most episcopally ordained clergymen and bishops (Anglican, Syrian, and Catholic churches) tha.t they constitute links in an uninterrupted chain1 of similarly or- dained persons, the first of whom "were

Apostolic Succession

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Arabia

ordained by the apostles themselves. With this opinion is combined the view that only clergymen who are in the line of this spiritual succession are entitled to a pastoral office in the Christian Church, and that all others usurp the functions of the ministry. In other words the apostolic succession, it is held, is the continuation of the ministerial commission and authority conferred by Christ upon the apostles by means of a regular chain of successive ordinations. This view presupposes the founding by the Savior of the visible Church on earth, the purpose of which was to carry on His work through the testimony of the G-ospel. Out of the general company of the disciples, the adherents of apos- tolic succession maintain, Christ chose the Twelve to he with Him and after- wards to go forth in His name. Having prepared these Twelve by a trial mission during His own earthly ministry, He, when leaving the earth, gave them the commission to represent Him in His vis- ible kingdom, which they were to found in the world. Matt. 28, 18. 19; John 20, 21 — 23. Thus the twelve apostles con- stituted a distinct company within the general society of the Church, with divine functions not to be changed at will, and with commissions subject to no limitations. Their authority, it is held, was from above and not merely deputed from below. This authoritative pastor- ate, or episcopacy, was intended by Christ to be perpetuated in every gener- ation; and hence the authoritatively commissioned ministry is the proper divine instrumentality through which Christ, the exalted invisible Head of the Church, who works by the Holy Spirit, communicates to His people His promised gifts of grace. Accordingly, the apos- tolic succession is the guarantee of Christ's presence and His divine work in the visible Church; and the episcopate, with its chain of successions, is the link of historical continuity which is needed in a universal spiritual society.

Opponents of the apostolic succession maintain that this view is based upon a misunderstanding of Christ's commis- sion, of the adherent power and efficacy of the Word, of the nature and char- acter of the Church, of the Office of the Keys, and the spiritual priesthood of all Christians. They further maintain that Christ, by commissioning His apostles, did not create a distinct body within the Church, vested with inalienable author- ity, but meiely charged them with the preaching of the Gospel and the adminis- tration of the Sacraments, which Christ has laid upon the whole Church of be-

Concordia Cyclopedia

1 levers as their duty and function. Hence ministers of the Church perform their public and official functions not by right of apostolic succession, but by reason of their call, through which the tights, privileges, and duties which Christ has given to all Christians are delegated to them for official execution in the name of the Church.

Apotelesmata. See Soteriology, Work of Christ.

Apportionment, After a budget (q.v.) has been established by a syn- odical organization, an apportionment is made, that is, each congregation is in- formed what its share of contributions ought to be. Such apportionment is made on the basis of the communicant membership or on the basis of the giving ability of a congregation (as this may be determined in accordance with previous efforts or other circumstances). The ap- portionment is not made for the pur- pose of taxing a congregation, but simply to show what the financial needs are. Wealthier congregations ought to give more than the apportionment, while poorer ones should not be compelled, if they are not able, to pay it. The Bible asks that the Christians bring their free- will offerings to the Lord's altar in ac- cordance with their means. No financial system should interfere with this divine rule. On the other hand, however, no Christian congregation or individual Christians should so construe this rule as to make it an excuse for shirking the Christian duty of giving financial sup- port to the Church and its work in ac- cordance with their means.

Approbation. The formal judgment of a Roman prelate declaring a priest fit to hear confession. Without it the abso- lution of a secular priest is held invalid.

Aquila (Adler), Caspar, b. 1488, d. 1560. Professor of Hebrew; helped Luther translate the Old Testament; wrote against the Interim and faithful to exiled John Frederick, the Elector. Charles V put a price on his head, whereupon he fled. When freed, he was called to Saalfeld.

Aquinas, Thomas. See Thomas Aqw~ was.

Arabia. Large peninsula of South- western Asia, between the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and the Ked Sea. Gen- erally divided by the ancients into Arabia Deserta, Arabia Petraea, includ- ing the district of Sinai with the capital 'Petra, and Arabia Felix (Araby the Blest), or Yemen, i.e., the land to the right (of Mecca) as contrasted with El

3

Arabia, Missions in

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Architect tire, Ecclesiastical

Sham, or Syria, the land to the left, Christianity never made much progress In these vast regions, though it was not unrepresented in the early centuries of our era. The destruction of Jerusalem and the Roman persecutions probably dro\e many Christians into the penin- sula. Petra, in the fourth century, was the seat of a metropolitan bishop whose diocese included several Christian bishop- rics. The Hinyarite king of Yemen, Abd-Kelal (A. D. 275), was a Christian. During the reign of his son Marthad (330 — 350) the Emperor Constantius sent an embassy to the Hinyarite court and secured certain privileges for the professors of the Christian faith in Yemen. The cruel persecution of Dzu- Nowas (490 — 525), who had embraced the Jewish faith, resulted in the inva- sion and subjection of Yemen by the Nestorian prince of Abyssinia. Two hiieeessive Abyssinian viceroys made vig- orous efforts to establish Christianity in the land. With a view to diverting the Arab tribes from Mecca a magnificent cathedral was built at Sana. But this hope was doomed to disappointment. Abraha, the second of the above-men- tioned princes, then conceived the plan to destroy the Kaaba itself. The expedition failed, and its leader perished (A. D, 570, the year of Mohammed's birth). Also the tribes of the Arabia Deserta had in part embraced Christianity during the third and fourth centuries. It remains to add that the Christianity of Arabia was mostly corrupt and heretical.

Arabia, Missions in. Area, ca. 1,250,000 sq. mi., embracing the Sinai Peninsula. Population, approximately 8,000,000. Language: Arabic. Religion: Moham- medan. Because of determined Islamic opposition, Christian missions have found no footing. Attempts were made by Ion Keith-Falconer in 1885 at Aden, in 1891 by Bishop French of the Church Missionary Society, since 1894 by the Dutch Reformed Church in America, of which Dr. S. M, SJwemer is a missionary, the Danish Church Mission in Arabia, The Roman Catholic Church is attempt- ing mission-work in Arabia from the Persian Gulf.

Aramaic. See Ancient Languages.

Arc, Joan of. See Joan of Arc.

Arcani Disciplina. Literally, "in- struction in the secret," or initiation into the mystery, a term applied to the peculiar withholding of information con- cerning the Christian mysteries, espe- cially the Sacraments and the fundamen- tal confessions, the baptismal formula, the Lord's Prayer, and the Creed, from

non-members. The practise was prob- ably based upon a good intention (cp. Matt. 7, (>), hut it led to much misunder- standing on the part of outsiders and served no real purpose.

Archbishop (or Metropolitan ) . A Ro- man Catholic bishop who not only has charge of his own diocese (called the archdiocese), but also has a certain over- sight and precedence over a number of other bishops (the suffragan bishops) whose dioceses, together with his own, form the archepiscopal province. The powers of archbishops have declined since the Middle Ages. They now have the right of compelling the suffragans to assemble in provincial council every three years, of admonishing them to discharge their duties faithfully, of judging them in civil causes, and of receiving appeals from the courts of the suffragans (see Courts, Spiritual). They have no direct jurisdiction over the subjects of the suf- fragans and can visit suffragan dioceses only with the approval of the provincial council. If a suffragan disobeys or dis- regards his archbishop, the latter has no recourse but to report to Rome. Even these rights, however, are rarely used nowadays, and archbishops are chiefly distinguished by being accorded certain honors and a superior dignity. In the L'nited States there are now (1924) 14 archdioceses.

Archdeacon. An official who was formerly chief confidant, assistant, and, frequently, representative of a bishop. A similar position is now usually held by the vicar-general (q.t\).

Archdiocese. See Archbishop.

Archeology, Biblical and Christian. See Biblical and Christian Archeology.

Archer, Frederick, 1838 — ; born in England, studied at London and in Leip- zig; organist in London and in New York (since 1881); conductor of Boston Oratorio Society and of the Pittsburgh Orchestra; showed great interest in liturgies and hymnology.

Architecture, EcclesiasUca-l. That branch of Christian art which deals with the history of the church-buildings of the Christians and lays down the prin- ciples for their construction. The de- velopment of Christian architecture probably took place in this way, that the form of the ancient Oriental dwelling was used for the ground-plan, its peri- style or atrium, together with the tabli- num (in Roman houses, the alae) being changed by a colonnade surrounding the impluvium, an open court with a water-basin, which permitted the intro-

Architecture, J£ccleMiaMlical

35

A rchitectiire,

cluction of clerestory windows. The re- sult was an ideal hall for the Christian assembly, the tablinum serving as the apse, the alae as the transepts. Some- what later, in the fourth and fifth cen- turies, the size of the congregation made the basilica form of church possible, a rectangular structure with a semicircu- lar apse, this modification, together with certain other changes, distinguishing the Christian church-building from the^pub- Hc or forensic basilica. In the Orient a central type of church-building was a little more prevalent, in the form of a round or polygonal structure, whose heavy dome construction required a very solid supporting wall, which, however, was often broken or relieved by a series of niches, partly for artistic considera- tions, but also for economy in the use of building material. These churches, as a lule, had semicircular apses. From this central type of church-building the so-called Byzantine style of church archi- tecture was developed. In this form or style we distinguish the narthex, or en- trance-hall, the nave, or church proper, sometimes broken into aisles in order to bring out the principle of length, and the sanctuary, or apse, with its side chapels. The structure proper is crowned with the cupola, or dome, which in various forms became characteristic of the By- zantine style as it has persisted, with slight modifications, to the present day. The most noted monument of the early Byzantine is the Chinch of Hagia Sofia at Constantinople and of the second per- iod the Church of -St. Mark at Venice. The more modern examples of the Byzan- tine style, particularly in Russia', are striking illustrations of a congealed, dead formalism of a decadent church with a ritualism whose flame has died down into cold embers. — Meanwhile in the entire West, arid wherever its in- fluence was potent enough, the basilica in its Christian form became the model for all church-buildings. It consisted of three main parts. In front of the en- trance was the atrium, or forecourt, an open space surrounded by a covered arcade, portico, or cloister, with a foun- tain or basin of pure water, the can- tharus, in its center. The church proper usually had the form of a rectangle, known as the body, or nave, the prin- ciple of length being always observed. The width of the church hall was com- monly broken by either three or five aisles. The roof 'of the central aisle, or nave proper, was generally raised above the outer aisles, thus forming clerestory Avails with windows. In the east end of the nave was the place for the choir,

sometimes on a level with the nave, then again elevated to the le\el of the apse, and usually enclosed by a balustrade There was an ambo, or reading-pulpit, on either side of the choir, the one on the south side for the Epistles, that on the north side for the Gospels. Even in the early days, but oftener after the coalition of the Gallican Church with that of Rome, the transept was added in the eastern end of the nave, thus giving to the church the shape of a cross. The apse, altar space, or chancel was a round or polygonal extension on the eastern end of the church-building, in line with the nave. There are some few buildings of this type extant, and some art critics favor its introduction at the present time, but in a modified form, on account of the difficulties of the flat roof con- struction. From the basilica there was developed the Romanesque, or round- arched, style of Western Europe, espe- cially among the Germanic peoples, the Lombard, Rhenish, Romance, Norman, Tuscan, and Sicilian subdivisions being distinguished. In the churches of this type the ground-plan of the basilica was retained, _ in smaller churches without aisle divisions, in larger structures with three or five aisles. The cruciform plan was common; additional apses at either end of the transept, also at the western end of the church, frequently found, as well as a second transept, narrower and shorter than the first, which signified the superscription on the cross. Extensions of the cross-nave formed an ambulatory around the sanctuary with the high altar. In the earlier part of this period the walls and columns were very heavy. Objections to the flat roof resulted in the adoption of round vaulting, which be- came the distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque style. Another fea- ture was the barrel- vaulting of the ceil- ing, which afterwards was modified to cross-vaulting, in order to distribute the thrust of the arches upon pillars and pilasters, the latter being reinforced by buttresses strengthening the walls where they were placed on the inside. The seveiely plain appearance of the exterior of the church was relieved by breaking up and diversifying the facades or west- em walls of the churches, where the main entrance was, by the application of appropriate ornamentation, both in the frieze and in the arches. It also be- came the custom to place a large cir- cular window over the main portal. The tower, originally an independent struc- ture, especially where it served as cam- panile or baptistery, became an integral part of the church structure.

Architecture, JSecleaiaatical

36

A via til N

The Gothic style is a sequel and out- growth of the Romanesque, hut the pointed arch, its most characteristic feature, changed both structure and symbolism of the cluiroh-building en- tirely. The pointed arch resulted in con- centrating the strains of the roof upon isolated points of support by groined in- stead of barrel- or simple cross-vaults, the ribbed vaulting of many churches being carried to the very limit of grace- ful endeavor and its thrust being re- ceived by the flagrantly flaunted device of the flying buttress reinforcing both the pilaster in the outside wall and the pillar bearing the clerestory. The Gothic style lifted up highly pitched roofs and gables to heights never dreamed of in earlier times and crowned the entire edi- fice with slender spires and pinnacles,, growing ever more decorative and ever pointing upward in joyful ecstasy until the whole building seems a splendid symphony in stone. The Cathedral of Amiens 'in France, that of Cologne in Germany, and that of York in England represent this type in the acme of its perfection. — Exit when ostentation and playfulness became the prime object in building, a decline set in from which ec- clesiastical art has not yet fully recov- ered. This period is commonly called the Baroque. Although critics have now become charitable enough to find some admirable traits in certain works of art which have been preserved from this period, it remains true, nevertheless, that arbitrariness and license characterize all its achievements, all the principles of construction being sacrificed for the sake of pictorial effect. The final decline set in with the period of the Rococo, when all pretense of definite architectural laws was given up, when the basic forms in construction were so completely covered that only a disharmonious conglomera- tion of strange combinations remained in view, the result often being a veri- table nightmare of fantastic and bizarre construction. The present revival of in- terest in architecture may pave the way for the adoption of sound principles in church-building.

The following definitions of the chief parts of a church-building may assist in understanding the principles of architec- ture. The facade is the front of the church. It is usually ornamented with decorative frieze, with sculpture work, and with the rose window over the main entrance. The atrium, or narthex, has become the entrance-hall, or vestibule, of the modern church, which, however, should not have the features of a thea- ter lobby. The clerestory is the upper

part of the Church, its walls being set back the width of the outer aisle, usually with many window openings. The nave is the auditorium, or body of the church, in which the principle of length must not be missing, the axis of the church running down the main aisle from the main entrance to the apse, on whose elevated platform the altar is situated. The transepts, or cross- arms, of the church should not be too deep, nor the chancel, for the pastor, in the performance of his official acts, should always be in full view of the con- gregation. Galleries are permissible only at the western end of the church -build- ing and in the transepts, if used at all. The best plan is to have the balcony above the vestibule reserved for the choir iilone, with the organ (organ-loft), in order to have the congregation present a compact body. The tower, with its surmounting steeple or spire, should be an integral part of the church-building. The triumphal arch forming the entrance to the apse, as well as all pi liars and pilasters, with their capitals, should con- form to the style of the church. See also Cathedrals.

Arends, Wilhelm Erasmus, 1077 to 1721, pastor near and in JTalberstadt; hymns show depth and vigor as well as beauty; wrote: "Ruestet ouch, ihr Chri- stenleute," a mighty call to arms for the spiritual conflict and victory.

Argentina. See South America,,

Arianism, the heresy of Arius, pres- byter of Alexandria (d. 330), which de- nied the coessentiality and the coeternity of the Second Person of the Trinity with God the Father, more correctly, which substituted for the Second Person a phi- losophical fiction. Arianism is really an attempt to accommodate to an a priori conception of the Deity, strongly sug- gesting Nco-Platonism, the essentials of Christian belief. It is concerned with cosmology rather than soteriology. God is the abstract "monad," alone unbegot- ten, wholly without an equal, eternal, unchangeable, even inconceivable and in- effable, transcendental, and removed from the world by an impassable gulf. He cannot impart His essence to any creature, nor can He create the world directly, because the creature cannot sus- tain the immediate divine agency. Be- sides, immediate creation would preju- dice His majesty. To bridge the chasm, therefore, in other words, to provide a mediating cosmic agent, Arius has re- course to the assumption that God cre- ated "out of nothing" (not of His own essence, be it noted ), "before all times

Arianism

arid aeons/' an intermediate being, ex- alted indeed above other creatures, but a creature withal, "through whom He made the worlds and all things." This being is called metaphorically the Son of God, Wisdom, Logos (Word), etc., but he^ is not "true God," "true power" (dvvctjuig}, "not eternal"; "there was a time when he was not," "dissimilar (Mpotos) in all respects from the essence of the Father." He is a "perfect crea- ture," yet not inherently sinless, but cap- able of moral progress, choosing the good and persevering therein by the grace of God. He is Logos, Wisdom, and Son, yet "he knows not fully his Father or his own nature." He has "life and being from God" even "as a locust or a cater- pillar," yet he is supposed to be the cre- ator of worlds and worthy of adoration. This imaginary being assumed in time a human body, but not also a human soul, since in that case two finite spirits would constitute a single personality. He is the redeemer, inasmuch as he has shown by his own example how all men, as free moral agents, may choose the good and become the sons of God. — Arianism stands self-condemned as a re- version to paganism. Seeking to pre- serve the unity of God, it lapses into polytheism by assuming a secondary cre- ated deity. Seeking to relieve the mys- teries of faith, it loses itself in contra- dictions. Its semidivirie intermediary is both philosophically and theologically a futile and monstrous fiction.

Semi-Arianism holds a middle ground between the Arian heresy and ISTicene orthodoxy. It upholds the coeternity of Christ with the Father, but denies the identity of essence. The Son is not a creature, yet He is not of the same, but only of like essence with God (homoi- ousios in opposition to homo-ousios, on the one hand, and Jietero-ousios, on the other.) Naturally, this wholly unten- able position, a mere temporizing com- promise, satisfied neither the orthodox Athanasian nor the strictly Arian party. Most of the Semi-Arians eventually adopted the Nicene Creed. But it was only after a fierce struggle that this con- summation was reached.

We add a brief historical sketch of the Arian controversy. It seems fairly well established that Arius was under the spell of his former teacher Lucian of Antioch, who anticipated his main thought and, indeed, has been called "Arius before Arius." Arius first came into conflict with Alexander, the bishop of Alexandria, who summoned a council, which deposed and excommunicated him for his denial of the deity of Christ

(321) . This was the beginning of a the- ological war that agitated the Church for over half a century. The deposed presbyter continued to advocate his views and found many partisans who rallied to his support, among them the powerful Eusebius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Caesarea, the church historian. Mean- while Alexander issued circular letters against Arius and his followers. Pres- ently the entire eastern portion of the Church was divided into two contending factions. Constantine, not appreciating the issues involved, endeavored at first to bring about an adjustment of differ- ences by addressing a diplomatic letter to Alexander, in which he advised the disputants, as being agreed on funda- mentals, not to quarrel over trivialities. The letter failed of its object. There- upon the emperor, probably at the advice of Hosius, the court bishop, who had been his ambassador to Alexander, re- solved to submit the question to the de- cision of a general council of the Church. This was the celebrated Council of Ni- cea (325). The three hundred and eighteen (?) bishops here assembled rep- resented three types of doctrine: Arian- ism, Seml-Ariamsm, and orthodoxy. The formula of faith proposed by the Arians, under the leadership of Eusebius of Nico- media (hence Eusebians), was summarily rejected. A second form submitted by Eusebius of Caesarea, the leader of the mediating party, while approaching the orthodox position, avoided the homo- ou&ios and admitted of an Arian or Semi- Arian interpretation. The orthodox right demanded a creed which no Arian could honestly sign. The impassioned zeal and eloquence of the young Athanasius won the day for Homo-ousianism. The sec- ond (Eusebian) formula was subjected to a revision ; all expressions that might in any way lend color to Arianism were replaced by strictly orthodox terms, spe- cial care being taken to insert the homo- ousios. Thus a rule of faith was pre- pared which asserted the consubstan- tiality and coeternity of Christ with the Father in language "without horns or teeth." This is the Nicene Creed. With the exception of Arius and two Egyp- tian bishops all subscribed the creed. Arius was banished to Illyria, and his books were burned.

But the unity thus established was more apparent than real. Many had sub- scribed the homo-ousian form reluctantly and without inward conviction. Thus the controversy soon broke out afresh and was continued with much passion and bitterness for three decades or more. -This was the period of the Arian and

Aristoteles

38

Scmi-Aiian reaction (325 — 361), when "the highways were covered with gallop- ing bishops,*' hurrying to councils and anticouncils, creeds and counter-creeds set up, and mutual anathemas hurled. Details miibt be sought in larger works. Suffice it to say that under the egis of the imperial power Semi-Arian- ism, or Ifonioi-oiisidnisni (similarity of essence), finally gained the ascendency in the whole- Koman Empire (356). But internal dissensions among the Arians themselves (TCunomius rejected the ho- moi-oU'Sios, insisting that the son was aiiomoios, unlike the Father) called forth more conciliar action, and ultimately the compromising formula, which Con- stantins tried to force upon the entire Church, namely, that the Ron was lio- 'inoios (a\oiding ousia,, essence, alto- gether) to the Father. The death of Con- stantixis, 301, marks the hog inning of the final stage in the Arian controversy. During the next twenty years Arianisin declined, while Niccne orthodoxy, cham- pioned by such men as the three great Cappadocians (Basil and the two Greg- orys) and Ambrose, of Milan, not to for- get Athanasius, reasserted itself mightily, Theodosius gave Arianism its death-blow. He summoned the Council of Constanti- nople (381 ), which reailirmed the Nicene doctrine, while the public worship of her- etics wan forbidden. It remains to add, however, that among the Teutonic in- vaders, who had embraced Christianity during the Arian ascendency, the teach- ings of Arms were perpetuated many years longer. The Goths and Suevi in Spain, the Burgnndians in Gaul, and the Lombards in Italy did not accept Cath- olicism until the sixth century. In North Africa the Vandals fiercely perse- cuted the Catholics till their destruction by Be.lisarius (T>31 ) .

Aristoteles, Perhaps the profouml- est, certainly the most versatile and uni- versal thinker of antiquity; b. at Sta- gira (hence "the Staginte*1), 384 B.C., d. at Chaleis, 322. For twenty years a pupil of Plato, he established (3,35 B.C.) a philosophical school in the, Lyceum at Athens, where he lectured while walking; bonce the name Peripatetics applied to. his disciples (nfQurowsWf to walk). Aris-, totle rejects the dualistic idealism of Plato. There, are not two worlds, but one. Ideas have no separate existence apart from the objects in which they in- here. The essential features in Aris- totle's world-view are as follows: From nothing, nothing can come. Matter, which is potential being1, is eternal. The potential becomes actual by the addition of form or idea. All things arc a combi-

nation of matter and form The process by which the potential becomes the ac- tual is movement. The Prime Movet is God, pure Form, pure Spirit, absolute and immaterial. Cod is both immanent and transcendent, both in the world and above it. A purely cosmic Cod, then* can be no intercourse between Him and man "Ft would bo piepostorons if any one said that lie loved Zeus" Into the numerous other liohls of knowledge which Aristotle explored as a pionoei wo can- not enter. Ilia dominant position in the scholastic theology of the Middle Ages is due chiefly to his furnishing the dia- lectical method employed by the School- men.

Armada. A designation applied par- ticularly to the great naval armumcnt known as the Invincible Armada, fitted out in lf»88 by Philip II against the lOu- glish Queen klix/abcth, in line with the scheme to subdue Protestantism. It con- sisted of 120 ships, carrying about ii(),000 soldieis and S,()(KI nailois. The loss of the Marquis of Santa Crux, their ad ruiral, and a violent, tempest, a, few days affer they had set sail, caused the opera- tions of the Spaniards to be ictarded. The fleet arrived on the coast of the Netherlands in rlnly, but the battle order was thrown into confusion by a strata- gem of Lord Howard, the Knglish ad- mi raJ, so that an attack against the in- vaders could be launched with great, force. The Spanish admiral, the Duke of Medina, Sidoiua, attempted to return, but contrary winds hindered him, and lie was obliged to make the circuit, of tho British Islands with the remnant of bin magnificent fleet, The English (leet con tinned to linnusH the enemy upon occa- sion, so that he bad practically no op- portunity to recover and to repair the damage done. In passing the Orkneys, the. Spanish Armada was again attacked by a violent, storm, and only a feeble remnant of the proud (loot returned to Spain. The, wreckers of the Orkneys and the KarooH, as Green writes, the clans- men of the. Scottish Isles, the kcrrm of Donegal and Gal way, all bud their part in the work of destroying the invaders. On a strand near Sligo an Katglisb cap- tain numbered eleven 1m ml rod corpses which had been cast up by the son, In commemoration of this deliverance a modal wan struck, bearing the legend ; Affldvit DCUH, ct dlnuipttH mutt (The, Lord blew on then), and they were scattered).

Armenia. A country in the. extreme western part of Asia, bordering on Asia Minor, between the Black and the Cas- pian Sean and i/ho Taurus and CaiicaHiiH Mountains, mainly high table-land, Jt

A rm CMI in, MI.Hsioi&s in

39

A r 111 i n I an I M 111

became a Roman ]>ro\ince under Trajan (114 — 117), and Christianity entered at the end of the third and in the fourth century. So well was it established, also by a translation of the Bible into Arme- nian and by an Armenian liturgy, that the MohammedaiiH have never succeeded in forcing the religion of Islam upon the country, in spite of the fact that they, since the end of the fourteenth century, when they obtained full control of the land, made use of the most unspeakable atrocities in attempting to have the in- habitants accept the teachings of the Koran. The Armenian Church was, prac- tically from the first, national in char- acter, with the language of the people in use throughout the churches, and it had a pronounced .Jewish type. More- over, the Armenian Church accepts only the strict Monophysitie doctrine (</. r. ) as correct, thus placing themselves in opposition to the Bible and orthodoxy, The Roman Catholic* Church has repeat- edly endeavored to bring the Armenian Church into closer contact with Home, but has succeeded only in gaining a small portion, the so-called Uniatcs, or United Armenians, The national Arme- nian Church considers as its head the eatholieos, or supreme patriarch, resid- ing at Kchmitidx/in, who is elected by a national council, consisting of members of all Armenian eparchies. Besides the .supreme patriarchate there are two lower ones, those of Jerusalem and Constan- tinople, There is an institution for the, training of theologians under the juris- diction of the supreme eatholieos, a sort of theologico - philosophical academy. Some mission-work has been done in Armenia, and the total number of evan- gelical Armenians has been estimated as Hone to 100,000, Mee Armenia,, Mis- In.

Armenia, MifHtwntt in. Armenia com- prises about 140,000 H<J. mi. Since the World War partly divided between Tur- key, Persia, and Russia, Estimated pop- ulation before the war, 8,500,000. Chris- tianity found early lodgment in Armenia. Under Islamic rule heavy persecutions resulted. The present population con- HiMtH of Armenians, Turks, Russians, Per- matis, Kurdij* OircanHianH, Jews, Creeks. MiwHicm-work was begun in 1820 by the American Board of (tomimHsloners for Foreign Mignkms. The Presbyterian Church followed in 1870,

Armenia* Rvpvblio oft oon»iBta of the

southeastern frontier districts of Trans- caucasia, formerly belonging to the ttu»- «itm Empire. Area, 80,000 «j, mi. Mis- sions as above.

Armenian Churcli In America. Al- though there were Armenians in America before 1895, the immigration, due to Turkish massacres, has been strongest since that year. They are found chiefly in the iSan'joaquiu Valley in California and in some of the large cities of the East. There are quite a few Protestants among them.

Arminianism. The term "Arminian- ismv embraces, in general, the teachings of Arminius, or James Hannensen (Ja- kob flerinanss), first a Dutch minister in Amsterdam and afterwards professor of theology at the university of Leyden, b. Oudewater, October 10, 1560; d. Ley- den, October 19, 1600. The theological views of Arminius and his followers were summed up in five points, which may be brieily stated thus: 1) God from all eternity predestinated to eternal life those of whom He foresaw that they would remain steadfast in faith unto their end. 2) Christ died for all man- kind, not simply for the elect. 3) Man must be regenerated by the Holy Spirit. 4) Man may resist divine grace. 5) Man may fall from divine grace. This last tenet was at first held but doubtfully j ultimately, however, it was firmly ac- cepted. The Synod of Dort (1018—10) condemned the Arminian doctrines, and the civil powers, as was the general prac- tise of the age, enforced the decrees of the council by pains and penalties. Nevertheless the new view spread rapidly, I'n 1021 Episcopius (b. at Amsterdam, January B, 1583; d. there April 4, 1643), at the request of the leading1 Remon- strants (Arminiaiis), drew up a formula of faith in twenty-five chapters, which wan widely circulated and subscribed by the most "eminent men in Holland and France, such as Grotius (Hugo de Groot, a Dutch statesman, also a theologian; b. Delft, April 10, 1583; d. Bostoek, August 28, 1645); Limborch (PMllip- pus van Limbprch, Dutch Remonstrant theologian; b. Amsterdam, June 10, 1033; d there April 30, 1712) ; Le Clerc (GlericuH, a learned theologian; b. Ge- neva, March 10, 1057; d. January 8, 1730); and Wetstein (Johann Jakob Wetstein, New Testament scholar; b. Ba- sel, March 5, 1003; d. Amsterdam, March J), 1754), hi France the effect of the controversy appeared in the modified Cal- vinism of Amyraldus, Jn England the so-called Arminian doctrines were held, in substance, long before the time of Anainius. Archbishop Laud introduced them officially into the Church of Eng- land, where they were adopted by suclx men as Cudwortb, Pierce, Jeremy Tay- lor, Tillotsou, Ohillingworth, Pearson,

Arnamlil, Antolne

40 Art, Ecclesiastical anci Religions

Whitliy, etc*. Arminianisni in the Church of England at last became a negathe term, implying the negation of Calvinism rather than any exact system of theology whatever. Much of what passed for Ar- miniaiiism was in fact Pelagianisra, Syn- ergism (q.v.) in some form. The doc- trine of Arminianism arose again in England in the great Western Reforma- tion of the seventeenth century, and its ablest expositions may be found in the writings of John Wesley, John Fletcher, and Richard Watson, while the remain- der of English Conformists and the Pres- byterians in Scotland and elsewhere con- tinued to be mainly Calvinists.

Arnauld, Antoine. Most illustrious of a famous French family; b. Paris, 1612; d. Brussels, 1694; noted for his defense of Jansenism and for his attacks on the Jesuits.

Arndt, E. See Roster at end of book.

Arndt, Ernst Moritz. Historian and hymnologist ; b. on island of Ruegen, 1769; d. Bonn, 1860; professor of his- tory at Bonn 1818—1820 and after 1840; wrote a treatise Von dem Worte und dem Kirchenlied (Of the Word and the Church Hymn] and a number of hymns.

Arndt (Arnd), Johann. Devotional writer; b. 1555; d. 1621; 1583 pastor In Badeborn, Anhalt, 1519 in Quedlin- burg, 1599 in Brunswick, 1611 court preacher and general superintendent in Celle. His fame rests chiefly on his True Christianity, translated into almost all European languages, which in some parts, however, is drawn from medieval writers like Tauler and not always sound.

Arnobius, b.in Sicca, Numidia, teacher of rhetoric, converted to Christianity in adult age, author of an apology (Dis- putationes adversus Nationes, 303), in which he exposes the folly and immorali- ties of pagan mythology, incidentally re- vealing great familiarity with classical literature. His knowledge of the Bible and Christianity is very deficient.

Arnold, Gottfried, b. 1666, d. 1714; an erratic pietistic and mystic writer; did not enter practical ministerial life because of his opposition to orthodox faith and conditions in the Church; in 1697 professor at Giessen; wrote the Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhisto- rie9 utterly partial to heretics, sectarians, and separatists.

Arnold, Thomas, 1795 — 1842; Broad- Churchman; b. West Cowes; priest, 1828; head master (famous for his stim- ulative influence) Rugby, 1828; Profes- sor of Modern History, Oxford, 1841; d. Rugby. History of Rome, etc.

Arnschwang-er, Johann Christoph, 1625 — 1696; preacher in Nuernberg; lover of music and poesy and prolific writer; wrote: "Hen* Jesu, aller Men- schen Hort"; "Auf, ihr Christen, lasst uns singen."

Arouet, Francois Marie. See Vol- ta ire.

Art, Ecclesiastical and Religious. That branch of art in general which, while employing the principles of art as basic for all productions coming under this division of esthetics, makes the spe- cial applications of these fundamental rules to the Christian church-building and its decoration, as well as to those productions which tend to the edification of the individual Christian or of the Christian family in the home. The ear- liest examples of Christian art, whether in the form of church-buildings or in the expression of the artistic mind in paint- ing or sculpture, are placed by critics in the third century. The catacombs fur- nish examples not only of fresco paint- ings, some of which show a high degree of excellence, but also of designs and figures carved in the stone slabs of the sarcophagi. Wood- and ivory-carving in pieces of furniture, in diptychs, in ivory coverings for gospels, church-books, and the like, in pyxes, patens, ampullas, vases of gold and silver, eucharistic doves, altar fronts, and ciboria, all indi- cate that the Church did not reject ar- tistic work as incompatible with the Christian doctrine. Between the fourth and the eleventh century, sculpture work in the Church hardly rose above the level of industrial carving, although there are individual examples of unusual work. With the great era of church-building, which began in the eleventh century, the plastic arts were given due attention, the result being found in the many beau- tiful portals, columns, buttresses, pillars, and tympanums of the late medieval period. The facades of many cathedrals erected during this time show individual as well as ensemble work which ranks with the finest productions of the sculp- tor's art of all times. Beginning with the thirteenth century, the Italian schools flourished, at Pisa, at Florence, at Siena, at Naples. At this time sculp- tured altar-pieees, pulpits, choirs, gal- leries, fonts, ciboria, tabernacles, cande- labra, single statues of saints and angels, crucifixes, madonnas, large groups of statues, begin to appear in endless variety. Names like that of Ghiberti, Donatello, and Michelangelo stand out most prominently at this time. There was a golden period of the plastic arts in Germany in the fifteenth century, the

Art, KocleniaMUcal and Rellffion* 41

Ascension

names of Peter Vischer, of Michael Wohl- gemuth, of Veit iStoss, and of Adam Kraft standing out above the rest. Since the